Humans to Mars: Fifty Years of Mission Planning, 1950-2000

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“NASA Budget Faces House-Senate Parley,” Aviation Week & Space Technology (29 September 1969): 19.

"NASA Forms Office to Study Manned Lunar Base, Mars Missions," Aviation Week & Space Technology (8 June 1987): 22.

"NASA Funds $100-Million Pathfinder Program for Mars, Lunar Technology," Aviation Week & Space Technology (18 January 1988): 17.

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“NASA Managers Divided on Station,” Aviation Week & Space Technology (28 July 1986) 24-25.

NASA. “NASA Facts: Space Station.” Kennedy Space Center Press Release No. 16-86, January 1986.

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NASA. "Part 17: Panel Discussion," Proceeding of the Symposium on Manned Planetary Missions: 1963/1964 Status. Huntsville, AL: NASA, 1964, pp. 737-54.

NASA. Proceedings of the Seventh Annual Working Group on Extraterrestrial Resources. Washington, DC: NASA SP-229, 1970.

NASA. Space Station Freedom Media Handbook. Washington, DC: NASA, April 1989.

NASA. "Statement by Dr. Sally K. Ride, Associate Administrator for Exploration (Acting) before the Subcommittee on Space Science and Applications, Committee on Science, Space, and Technology, House of Representatives," 22 July 1987.

NASA. “A Report from Mariner IV,” NASA Facts 3, No. 3 (1966).

NASA. Report of the 90-Day Study on Human Exploration of the Moon and Mars. "Cost Summary," unpublished chapter.

NASA. Report of the 90-Day Study on Human Exploration of the Moon and Mars. Washington, DC: NASA, November 1989.

National Commission on Space (NCOS). Pioneering the Space Frontier: The Report of the National Commission on Space. New York: Bantam Books, May 1986.

Nicks, Oran. Summary of Mariner 4 Results. Washington, DC: NASA SP-130.

Nixon, Richard. "Memorandum for the Vice President, the Secretary of Defense, the Acting Administrator, NASA, and the Science Advisor," 13 February 1969, Logsdon, gen. ed., Exploring the Unknown, Vol. 1, pp. 512-513.

Normyle, William. "Manned Mars Flights Studied for the 1970s," Aviation Week & Space Technology (27 March 1967): 62-63, 65, 67.

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Normyle, William. “NASA Aims at 100-man Station,” Aviation Week & Space Technology (24 February 1969): 16-17.

Normyle, William. “NASA Plans Five-Year Fund Rise,” Aviation Week & Space Technology (14 October 1968): 16-17.

Normyle, William. "Post-Apollo Program Potential Emerging," Aviation Week & Space Technology (6 March 1967): 126-131.

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“Notice to NASA,” Aviation Week & Space Technology (15 January 1990): 15.

    1. Ride, Leadership, p. 53.
    1. Ibid., p. 6.
    1. Craig Covault, "Ride Panel Calls for Aggressive Action," p. 26; NASA, Astronautics and Aeronautics 1986-1990 (Washington, DC: NASA SP-4027), p. 126.
    1. Ride, Leadership, p. 55.
    1. Craig Covault, "Ride Panel Will Urge Lunar Base, Earth Science as New Space Goals," Aviation Week & Space Technology (13 July 1987): 17; see also Michael Collins, Mission to Mars (New York: Grove Weidenfeld, 1990), pp. xii, 197.
    1. Ride, Leadership, p. 55.
    1. Ibid., p. 22.
    1. Ibid., p. 43.
    1. NASA, “Statement by Dr. Sally K. Ride,” p. 4.
    1. Ride, Leadership, p. 40.
    1. "NASA Forms Office to Study Manned Lunar Base, Mars Missions," Aviation Week & Space Technology (8 June 1987): 22.
    1. Ride, Leadership, p. 53.
    1. Ibid., p. 47.
    1. Science Applications International Corporation, Piloted Sprint Missions to Mars (Schaumberg, IL: Report No. SAIC-87/1908, Study No. 1-120-449-M26, November 1987).
    1. Ibid., p. 2.
    1. Ibid., p. 13; University of Texas and Texas A&M University Design Team, "To Mars—A Manned Mars Mission Study," Summer Project Report (NASA Universities Advanced Space Design Program, Advanced Programs Office, Johnson Space Center, August 1985).
    1. Ibid., p. 17.
    1. NASA, Astronautics and Aeronautics 1986-1990, p. 115.
    1. Office of Exploration, Exploration Studies Technical Report, FY 1988 Status, Volume 1: Technical Summary (Washington, DC: NASA TM-4075, December 1988); Office of Exploration, "FY88 Exploration Studies Technical Presentation to the Administrator," presentation materials (25 July 1988).
    1. Martin Marietta, Manned Mars System Study (MMSS) Executive Summary (Denver, CO: Martin Marietta, July 1990).

Endnotes

    1. Clark interview, 27 August 1999.
    1. David S. F. Portree, Thirty Years Together: A Chronology of U.S.-Soviet Space Cooperation (Houston: NASA CR-185707, February 1993), pp. 26-27.
    1. Harvey Meyerson, “Spark Matsunaga 1916-1990,” The Planetary Report (July/August 1990): 26.
    1. Philip Klass, "Commission Considers Joint Mars Exploration, Lunar Base Options," Aviation Week & Space Technology (29 July 1985): 47.
    1. Carl Sagan, “To Mars,” Aviation Week & Space Technology (8 December 1986): 10.
    1. The Mars Declaration.
    1. Richard O'Lone, "Scientist Sees Space Station Useful Only If Linked to Manned Mars Mission," Aviation Week & Space Technology (25 January 1988): 55, 57.
    1. Portree, Thirty Years Together, p. 30.
    1. V. Glushko, Y. Semyonov, and L. Gorshkov, "The Way to Mars," The Planetary Report (November-December 1988): 4-8. Translation of Pravda article dated 24 May 1988.

Chapter 9

    1. NASA, Report of the 90-Day Study on Human Exploration of the Moon and Mars (Washington, DC: NASA, November 1989), pp. 9-12 - 9-13.
    1. Aaron Cohen interview by David S. F. Portree, 27 August 1999.
    1. Craig Covault, "Space Policy Outlines Program to Regain U.S. Leadership," Aviation Week & Space Technology (22 February 1988): 20.
    1. "NASA Funds $100-Million Pathfinder Program for Mars, Lunar Technology," Aviation Week & Space Technology (18 January 1988): 17.
    1. Dwayne Day, “Doomed to Fail,” Spaceflight (March 1995): 80.
    1. Office of the White House Press Secretary, "Remarks of the President at the 20th Anniversary of Apollo Moon Landing" (Washington, DC: White House, 20 July 1989).
    1. “Space Wraith,” Aviation Week & Space Technology (24 July 1989): 21.
    1. Mark Craig interview by David S. F. Portree, 13 September 1999.
    1. Richard Truly and Franklin Martin, “Briefing to NASA Employees,” presentation materials (26 July 1989).
    1. Ivan Bekey interview by David S. F. Portree, 7 September 1999.
    1. "NASA Accelerates Lunar Base Planning as Station Changes Draw European Fire," Aviation Week & Space Technology (18 September 1999): 26-27.
    1. Humboldt Mandell interview by David S. F. Portree, 13 September 1999.
    1. Cohen interview, 27 August 1999.
    1. Ibid.
    1. NASA, "Cost Summary," unpublished chapter in Report of the 90-Day Study on Human Exploration of the Moon and Mars, p. 2.
    1. Ibid., p. 3.
    1. Ibid.
    1. Ibid., p. 4.
    1. Ivan Bekey, "A Smaller Scale Manned Mars Evolutionary Program," IAF-89-494 (paper presented at the 40th Congress of the International Astronautical Federation, Malaga, Spain, 7-12 October 1989), p. 6.
    1. Bekey interview, 7 September 1999.
    1. Rod Hyde, Yuki Ishikawa, and Lowell Wood, "An American-Traditional Space Exploration Program: Quick, Inexpensive, Daring, and Tenacious, Briefing to the National Space Council" (Livermore, CA: LLNL Doc. No. Phys. Brief 89-403, September 1989).
    1. Day, “Doomed to Fail,” p. 81.
    1. "Space Policy," Aviation Week & Space Technology (30 October 1989): 15; John Connolly, personal communication.
    1. Craig interview, 13 September 1999.
    1. Roderick Hyde, Muriel Ishikawa, and Lowell Wood, "Mars in this Century: The Olympia Project," UCRL-98567, DE90 008356, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (paper presented at the U.S. Space Foundation 4th National Space Symposium, Colorado Springs, Colorado, 12-15 April 1988).
    1. R. A. Hyde, M. Y. Ishikawa, and L. L. Wood, "Toward a Permanent Lunar Settlement in the Coming Decade: The Columbus Project" (Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory: UCRL-93621, DE86 006709, 19 November 1985).
    1. Hyde, et al., “An American-Traditional Space Exploration Program,” p. 38.
    1. Ibid., p. 3-4.
    1. “Notice to NASA,” Aviation Week & Space Technology (15 January 1990): 15.
    1. Committee on the Human Exploration of Space, Human Exploration of Space: A Review of NASA's 90-Day Study and Alternatives (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1990), p. x.

Endnotes

    1. Ibid., p. 17.
    1. Scientific Industrial Corporation "Energia," Mars Manned Mission: Scientific/Technical Report (Moscow, Russia: USSR Ministry of General Machinery, 1991), p. 1.
    1. Ibid., p. 15.
    1. SEI Synthesis Group, America at the Threshold: America's Space Exploration Initiative (Washington, DC: Government Printing Office, May 1991).
    1. "Reaching Out," Aviation Week & Space Technology (4 June 1990): 15; Craig Covault, "Exploration Initiative Work Quickens as Some Concepts Avoid Station," Aviation Week & Space Technology (17 September 1990): 36.
    1. Astronautics and Aeronautics 1986-1990, p. 255.
    1. Covault, “Exploration Initiative Work Quickens,” p. 36.
    1. America at the Threshold, p. 52.
    1. Ibid., p. 8.
    1. Kent Joosten, personal communication.

Chapter 10

    1. Kent Joosten, Ryan Schaefer, and Stephen Hoffman, "Recent Evolution of the Mars Reference Mission," AAS-97-617 (paper presented at the AAS/AIAA Astrodynamic Specialist Conference, Sun Valley, Idaho, 4-7 August 1997), p. 1.
    1. Robert Zubrin with Richard Wagner, The Case for Mars (New York: Free Press, 1996), pp. 51-52; Benton Clark interview by David S. F. Portree, 30 September 1999.
    1. Zubrin and Wagner, The Case for Mars, p. 65.
    1. Leonard David, “Faster, Cheaper Mars Exploration,” p. 37.
    1. Robert Zubrin and David Baker, "Humans to Mars in 1999," Aerospace America (August 1990): 30-32, 41. For other examples, see Zubrin and Benjamin Adelman, "The Direct Route to Mars," Final Frontier (July/August 1992): 10-15, 53, 55; Zubrin and Christopher McKay, "Pioneering Mars," Ad Astra (September/October 1992): 34-41; Zubrin, "The Significance of the Martian Frontier," Ad Astra (September/October 1994): 30-37; Zubrin, "Mars: America's New Frontier," Final Frontier (May/June 1995): 42-46; Zubrin, "The Economic Viability of Mars Colonization," Journal of the British Interplanetary Society (October 1995): 407-414; Zubrin, "The Promise of Mars," Ad Astra (May/June 1996): 32-38; Zubrin, "Mars on a Shoestring," Technology Review (November/December 1996): 20-31; Zubrin, "Sending Humans to Mars," Scientific American Presents (Spring 1999): 46-51; Zubrin, "The Mars Direct Plan," Scientific American (March 2000): 52-55.

Endnotes

    1. Zubrin and Baker, p. 30.
    1. Ibid, p. 31.
    1. Martin Marietta, Manned Mars System Study (Mars Transportation and Facility Infrastructure Study), Volume II, Final Report (Denver, CO: Martin Marietta, July 1990), pp. 4-11 - 4-16.
    1. Zubrin and Baker, p. 41.
    1. Michael Duke and Nancy Anne Budden, editors, Mars Exploration Study Workshop II (Houston: NASA CP-3243, November 1993), p. iii.
    1. Exploration Programs Office, "EXPO Mars Program Study, Presentation to the Associate Administrator for Exploration," presentation materials (9 October 1992).
    1. Zubrin with Wagner, The Case for Mars, pp. 66-67.
    1. David Weaver and Michael Duke, "Mars Exploration Strategies: A Reference Program and Comparison of Alternative Architectures," AIAA 93-4212 (paper presented at the AIAA Space Program and Technologies Conference, Huntsville, Alabama, 21-23 September 1993).
    1. Duke and Budden, Mars Exploration Study Workshop II.
    1. Robert Zubrin and David Weaver, "Practical Methods for Near-Term Piloted Mars Missions," AIAA 93-2089 (paper presented at the AIAA/SAE/ASME/ASEE 29th Joint Propulsion Conference, Monterey, California, 28-30 June 1993), p. 3. In a 30 September 1999 interview with the author, Benton Clark compared the Mars Direct ERV volume per crewmember to "a telephone booth." See also David S. F. Portree, "The New Martian Chronicles," Astronomy (July 1997): 32-37.
    1. Kent Joosten, personal communication.
    1. Donald Savage and James Gately, "Mars Observer Investigation Report Released" (Washington, DC: NASA Headquarters Press Release 94-1, 5 January 1994).
    1. Tim Furniss, “Red Light?” Flight International (6-12 October 1993): 28-29.
    1. Kent Joosten, personal communication.
    1. Donald Savage, James Hartsfield, and David Salisbury, "Meteorite Yields Evidence of Primitive Life on Early Mars" (NASA Headquarters Press Release 96-160, 7 August 1996).
    1. Everett Gibson, David McKay, Kathie Thomas-Keprta, Christopher Romanek, "The Case for Relic Life on Mars," Scientific American (December 1997): 58-65.
    1. Kent Joosten, personal communication.
    1. Associate Administrators for HEDS Enterprise and Associate Administrator for Space Science Enterprise to Director, Jet Propulsion Laboratory, and Director, Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, "Integration of Mars Exploration Study and Planning," 7 November 1996, p. 1.
    1. Ibid., pp. 1-2.
    1. Ibid., p. 2.
    1. Douglas Isbell and Michael Braukus, "Space Science and Human Space Flight Enterprises Agree to Joint Robotic Mars Lander Mission" (NASA Headquarters Press Release 97-51, 25 March 1997).
    1. Stephen Hoffman and David Kaplan, editors, Human Exploration of Mars: The Reference Mission of the NASA Mars Exploration Study Team (Houston: NASA SP-6017, July 1997).
    1. Ibid., pp. 1-36 - 1-37, 1-41.
    1. Ibid., p. v.
    1. Kent Joosten, et al.
    1. Michael Duke, editor, Mars Surface Mission Workshop, LPI Contribution 934 (Houston: Lunar and Planetary Institute, 1998).
    1. Mars Exploration Study Team, "Mars Exploration Study Program: Report of the Architecture Team" (presentation materials, 6 April 1999), p. 6. The three-pronged approach to Mars exploration apparently dates from a March 1995 NASA Solar System Exploration Subcommittee meeting (Don Bogard, personal communication); it became widely applied to NASA Mars planning only after the McKay team's announcement in August 1996.
    1. Duke, Mars Surface Mission Workshop, p. 8.
    1. Bret Drake, editor, Reference Mission Version 3.0, Addendum to the Human Exploration of Mars: The Reference Mission of the NASA Mars Exploration Study Team, EX13-98-036 (Houston: NASA Johnson Space Center Exploration Office, June 1998), pp. 33-37.
    1. David S. F. Portree, “Walk This Way,” Air & Space Smithsonian (October/November 1998): 45-46.
    1. Nancy Anne Budden and Michael B. Duke, editors, HEDS-UP Mars Exploration Forum, LPI Contribution 955 (Houston: Lunar and Planetary Institute, 1998).
    1. Michael Duke, editor, Second Annual HEDS-UP Forum, LPI Contribution 979 (Houston: Lunar and Planetary Institute, 1999).
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