Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES 2013) 132 Subcomponent 6.3: Extreme Event Preparedness and Disaster Management Topic 6.3.1: Preparedness for natural extreme events and disasters 6.3.1.a: National natural extreme event and disaster preparedness and management systems 6.3.1.a.1: Existence of national disaster plans/programmes 6.3.1.a.2: Description (e.g. number of staff) of national disaster plans/programmes 5.4. Agriculture and the environment 5.44. Agriculture is essential to sustaining livelihoods, securing food production and pro viding income. Agriculture is an environment-dependent activity that involves the use of eco system goods and services, and environmental resources such as land, soil resources, water resources and energy resources. Agriculture is the largest water consumer in the world.112 5.45. Sustainable agricultural production contributes to long-term food security. The promo tion and support of sustainable agriculture that conserves land, water, biodiversity and ecosys tems, while enhancing resilience to climate change and natural disasters, has been agreed upon internationally, as has the need to maintain natural ecological processes.113 5.46. Large scale or intensive agriculture requires the increasing use of chemicals, infrastruc ture and machinery. In its effort to improve crop production, agriculture has become an industry which uses more and more anthropogenic inputs in the form of chemical fertilizers, pesticides and modified genetic material. Changes to soil chemistry through fertilizer and pesticide applications, as well as alteration of ecosystems and biota through introduction of genetic material, all influ ence the health and well-being of humans and other living beings. Agricultural infrastructure (e.g., access roads and networks for delivery of products), immovable irrigation infrastructure, dam construction for access to water resources, as well as wind and solar energy infrastructure for exploiting groundwater resources, all contribute to changes in the ecosystems. 5.47. Many advances in conventional agricultural production in recent decades have been realized with little or no regard for biodiversity. Modern agricultural practices, which intensify a given crop’s production yields, have led to gross simplification of agricultural systems and biodiversity resulting in an increasing need to conserve existing biodiversity. This has gener ated substantial efforts to develop holistic approaches to agricultural management including, for example, organic farming and integrated pest management. These are now very recognized practices in many parts of the world and can reduce the environmental impact of farming significantly. 5.48. The increased use of GMOs in modern agriculture has had some negative impact on biodiversity, although higher-yielding, pesticide-resistant, genetically modified crops may also reduce GHG emissions. More and better monitoring data are needed to assess these effects. 5.49. Agriculture both contributes to and is seriously influenced by climate change. It cre ates GHG emissions by decreasing carbon sinks (via deforestation and wetland conversion), contributes to methane emissions (via rice cultivation and ruminant livestock), releases nitrous oxide through nitrogen fertilizers, and emits CO2 via machinery and transport. In turn, as a result of climate change, agriculture faces changes in water availability, increased exposure to heat stress, changed distribution of pests and diseases, increased leaching of nutrients from soil, greater soil erosion from stronger winds and rainfall, and an increased frequency of wildfires. 5.50. On the other hand, agriculture also provides opportunities to tackle climate change. This can take three forms: a) decreasing GHG emissions via improved agricultural manage ment of livestock and rice cultivation; b) improving the carbon sink function of agricultural soils and of vegetation on agricultural land; and c) contributing to the development of renew able energy sources via agricultural biomass, e.g., from manure or crop residues. 112 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (2014). World Water Assessment Programme” available from www.unesco .org/new/en/natural-sciences /environment/water/wwap /facts-and-figures/all-facts- wwdr3/fact2-agricultural-use/ (accessed 4 August 2017). 113 United Nations (2012). Rio+20 outcome document, “The Future We Want, available from https:// sustainabledevelopment.un.org /futurewewant.html (accessed 4 August 2017).
133 Applications of the FDES to cross-cutting environmental issues 133 5.51. Flows and balances of nutrients and their contribution to soil fertility are critical to agri cultural production. Overall, human society has more than doubled the worldwide terrestrial cycling of nitrogen and phosphorous and has created an imbalance in these nutrients. This is leading to environmental problems such as soil degradation and loss of soil fertility. Improving nutrient efficiency in crop and animal production is integral to mitigating this problem. 5.52. Regarding livestock production, growth and productivity gains are frequently achieved through the use of antibiotics, hormones, genetic material and intensive feeding practices on pasture, rangeland and feedlots. Bacteria in poultry litter, veterinary antibiotics, anti-parasitic medicines and hormones are just a fraction of the contaminants introduced into the environ ment through livestock production. The cumulative effect of releases from livestock production and agriculture creates a pressing need to monitor the environmental consequences. However, there are still many rangeland systems that make positive contributions to biodiversity and landscapes. Application of the FDES to agriculture and the environment 5.53. In this cross-cutting issue, the scope of agriculture is set out according to groups 011 through 016 in ISIC Rev. 4, which comprise crop and animal production.114 Although the scope is restricted to these contents, using the pattern applied below, similar exercises may be conducted for forestry, aquaculture and agro-industrial activities and their relationship to the environment. 5.54. Figure 5.10 is a schematic presentation of the relationship between agriculture and the environment. It also helps to illustrate how the FDES can be applied to study these relationships. Figure 5.10 The relationship between agriculture and the environment 114 United Nations Statistics Division (2008). International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC), Rev. 4, available from http://unstats. un.org/unsd/cr/registry/isic-4. asp (accessed 4 August 2017). Environmental Conditions and Quality Inputs to Agriculture from Economy Environmental Resources and their Use Agricultural Production Residuals Human Settlements and Environmental Health Responses Extreme Events and Disasters Environmental Changes Changes in Quality Changes in Quantity Changes in Physical Conditions and Disruption of Ecological Functions
Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES 2013) 134 5.55. Environmental Conditions and Quality (FDES Component 1) largely determine the agricultural potential of a country. These environmental conditions (such as climate and weather, hydrological conditions, terrain, soil types and fertility levels) actually provide the basic ecological foundation for agriculture. 5.56. Agricultural production uses environmental resources (FDES Component 2) such as land, soil resources, water resources and energy resources. The resources are modified both qualitatively and quantitatively. For example, water may become polluted and overused, or nutrients from soil may be depleted and require replenishment by artificial means. Other natu ral inputs and processes are also necessary to produce crops and livestock—namely, the perma nent flux of solar luminescence, photosynthesis and a wide range of other ecosystem services. Additionally, manufactured inputs such as fertilizers, pesticides and other agrochemicals (for crops), antibiotics and hormones (for livestock) are also used in agricultural production and released to the environment. 5.57. Various farming methods such as traditional, extensive, monoculture or organic may be used to produce different types of crops and livestock (FDES Component 2). Therefore, the intake of resources and agrochemicals, as well as the residuals, could be more or less sustain able, depending on the state, conditions and resilience of surrounding environments. Monitor ing yields and their changes through time and space provides additional information to assess the sustainability and health of ecosystems. 5.58. Agricultural processes generate different kinds of residuals (FDES Component 3). Emissions to water occur from the use of agrochemicals. Agricultural emissions to air and atmosphere resulting from land use change associated with agriculture (i.e., deforestation), the use of fossil fuels for energy and transportation in agriculture, and livestock digestive functions (methane) are also important, particularly in terms of contributing to climate change. Agricul ture can also emit ODSs, particularly methyl bromide, into the environment. It is known to be used as a soil and structural fumigant to control pests in many countries. The application of and the residuals from agricultural substances, such as fertilizers and pesticides are an enviro. nmental health concern. Residuals in soil from the use of agrochemicals play an important role in determining its quality, productive capacity and pollution levels. 5.59. Agricultural waste is composed, to a great extent, of organic materials such as harvest remains from grain, oilseed, vegetable and orchard crops. It also includes manure and animal output, in solid or liquid form, from livestock operations. Organic waste is a resource whenever it is reused or recycled, for example, to produce organic fertilizer from biomass and manure. Other examples of solid waste include empty pesticide and fertilizer containers, old silage wrap, expired pesticides, medicines, used oil, gasoline and diesel containers, and used tyres. 5.60. Extreme events and natural disasters (FDES Component 4) can also affect environmen tal resource stocks and, therefore, their use, as well as the production and yields of agricul ture and livestock. More intensive droughts, floods, landslides, hurricanes and storms impact the state of the environment and the ecological functions that support agriculture. They can severely affect soil, land and biological resources to be used or already in use, as well as the productivity of these environmental resources. Extreme events and disasters can directly affect the soil and land under crops or pastures, and can also affect the water cycle and critical water sheds. They can impact relevant infrastructure and even damage crops and livestock, depend ing on the intensity, duration and nature of the extreme event and disaster, the ecosystem’s resilience and society’s preparedness and response. 5.61. Overall, agricultural activities change the environment. They can transform ecosys tems and physical conditions (FDES Component 1) via irrigation, drainage, deforestation, and the use of fertilizers and pesticides. They modify the quality and quantity of environmental
135 Applications of the FDES to cross-cutting environmental issues 135 resources (FDES Component 2) being used or to be used in the future, depending on the type and extent of the agricultural activities and the resilience of the environment. These changes may be qualitative and quantitative in nature. Qualitative transformation becomes an environ mental issue when it concerns pollution, i.e., the biological and chemical pollution of water and the eutrophication of rivers, lakes and seas, the pollution of soil or its degradation particularly in specific sites and zones, and the air and atmospheric pollution already described under residuals. Quantitative changes include considerable land use changes (e.g., loss of natural ecosystems such as forest to pastures and crops), increased or new water stress, overuse and depletion of water, and contribution to soil erosion and degradation. Finally, agriculture may lead to changes in physical conditions such as temperature, humidity and precipitation from climate change, and disruptions of ecological functions such as biodiversity loss (terrestrial and aquatic) around agricultural areas and the introduction of invasive species. 5.62. These changes in the environment will also affect human environmental health (FDES Component 5). Of particular importance are human health problems related to toxic substance exposure. The use of toxic substances in agriculture, such as those in pesticides (fungicides, herbicides, insecticides and rodenticides) and their potential appearance in food, air or water, are important environmental and health concerns. 5.63. Information on society’s responses aimed at protecting, managing and restoring envi ronmental resources (water resources, energy resources, soil resources and land) and at reduc ing the negative environmental impacts of agricultural activities is important (FDES Com ponent 6). The relevant information about environmental protection expenditure, economic measures, actions and programmes aimed at protecting and restoring soil and water functions to sustainable levels, as well as promoting organic and sustainable agriculture, cleaner energy production and efficiency in agriculture, is significant. These social efforts can diminish the negative impacts and effects of agriculture on the environment and human health. Depending on the magnitude of impacts over time and across space, they could even restore the environ mental quality and conditions and ensure the sustainable use of environmental resources. 5.64. The statistical description of the relationship between agriculture and the environment brings together statistical topics and statistics from all components of the FDES. In addition, supporting statistics are needed that are commonly available from agricultural, economic and social statistics. Geospatial statistics and GIS are playing an increasing role in complementing traditional data in this area. 5.65. In the figures below, the FDES has been applied specifically to organize the relevant environment statistics needed to inform about issues related to agriculture and the environ ment. Figures 5.11 and 5.12 illustrate how the contents of the FDES and its Core Set and Basic Set of Environment Statistics can be used to select and relate its relevant parts to properly describe the relationship between agriculture and the environment. 5.66. Figures 5.11 and 5.12 are based on the sequence scheme relating agriculture and the environment as depicted in Figure 5.10. They present the FDES components, subcomponents, topics and environment statistics that are considered necessary to inform about this cross- cutting issue. Figure 5.11 presents the key information to describe the relationship between agriculture and the environment down to the topic level. Figure 5.12 presents the individual statistics of the Basic Set of Environment Statistics, organized under the different topics and components of the FDES, in a way that disaggregates the topics of Figure 5.10 to the most detailed level possible. At the end of this analysis of the relationship between agriculture and the environment, several commonly used agri-environmental indicators (AEIs) are presented to illustrate those that can be constructed with the selected environment statistics.