Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES 2013) 124 Protection and Mitigation Activities Subcomponent 6.1: Environmental Protection and Resource Management Expenditure Topic 6.1.1: Government environ mental protection and resource management expenditure 6.1.1.a: Government environmental protection and resource management expenditure [related to energy production and con sumption] 6.1.1.a.1: Annual government environmental protection expenditure 6.1.1.a.2: Annual government resource management expenditure Topic 6.1.2: Corporate, non-profit institution and household environmental protection and resource management expenditure 6.1.2.a: Private sector environmental protection and resource management expenditure [related to energy production and con sumption] 6.1.2.a.1: Annual corporate environmental protection expenditure 6.1.2.a.2: Annual corporate resource management expenditure 6.1.2.a.3: Annual non-profit institution environmental protection expenditure 6.1.2.a.4: Annual non-profit institution resource management expenditure 6.1.2.a.5: Annual household environmental protection expenditure 6.1.2.a.6: Annual household resource management expenditure Subcomponent 6.2: Environmental Governance and Regulation Topic 6.2.2: Environmental regu lation and instruments 6.2.2.a: Direct regulation [related to energy production and consumption] 6.2.2.a.1: List of regulated pollutants and description (e.g., by year of adoption and maximum allowable levels) 6.2.2.a.2: Description (e.g., name, year established) of licensing system to ensure compliance with environmental standards for businesses or other new facilities 6.2.2.a.3: Number of applications for licenses received and approved per year 6.2.2.a.5: Budget and number of staff dedicated to enforcement of environmental regulations 6.2.2.b: Economic instruments [related to energy production and consumption] 6.2.2.b.1: List and description (e.g., year of establishment) of green/environmental taxes 6.2.2.b.2: List and description (e.g., year of establishment) of environmentally relevant subsidies 6.2.2.b.3: List of eco-labelling and environmental certification programmes 6.2.2.b.4: Emission permits traded Topic 6.2.3: Participation in MEAs and environmental conventions 6.2.3.a: Participation in MEAs and other global environmental conventions 6.2.3.a.1: List and description (e.g., country’s year of participationa) of MEAs and other global environmental conventions [related to energy production and consumption] a Participation means that the country or area has become party to the agreements under the treaty or convention, which is achieved through various means, depending on the country’s circumstances, namely: accession, acceptance, approval, formal confirmation, ratification and succession. Countries or areas that have signed but not become party to the agreements under a given convention or treaty are not considered to be participating. Subcomponent 6.3: Extreme Event Preparedness and Disaster Management Topic 6.3.2: Preparedness for technological disasters 6.3.2.a: National technological disaster preparedness and management systems [related to energy production and consumption] 6.3.2.a.1: Existence and description (e.g., number of staff) of public disaster management plans/programmes (and private when available) 6.3.2.a.2: Expenditure on disaster prevention, preparedness, clean-up and rehabilitation 5.3. Climate change 5.26. The Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC has affirmed that climate change is one of the greatest challenges of our time.97 Climate change is a change of climate which is attrib uted directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmos phere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods.98 The world’s climate system, including the atmosphere, oceans and cryosphere, is changing and will continue to change at rates unprecedented in recent human history. Findings on the scientific basis for climate change suggest that a number of human-induced alterations of the natural world are involved. These alterations affect the global energy balance (the bal ance between incoming energy from the sun and outgoing heat from the earth) and ultimately lead to climate change. 5.27. The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the UNFCCC. Its main feature is that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European com munity to reduce GHG emissions, rather than simply encouraging them to attain these goals, as is the case with the Framework Convention. The targets amount to an average of five per 97 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (2011). “Report of the Conference of the Parties on its sixteenth session, held in Cancun from 29 November to 10 December 2010”, available from http:// unfccc.int/resource/docs/2010 /cop16/eng/07a01.pdf (accessed 4 August 2017). 98 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (1992), available from https:// unfccc.int/files/essential _background/background _publications_htmlpdf /application/pdf/conveng.pdf (accessed 4 August 2017).
125
Applications of the FDES to cross-cutting environmental issues
125
cent against 1990 levels over the five-year period 2008-2012.99 In 2012, the Doha Amendment
(to the Kyoto Protocol) was adopted. This amendment further contributed to reducing GHG
emissions by at least 18 percent below 1990 levels in the eight years from 2013 to 2020. It also
expands the list of GHGs regulated by the Kyoto Protocol.100 These conventions and protocols
involve reporting obligations, which in turn create additional data requirements and demand
for environment statistics.
5.28.
The Rio+20 United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development reaffirmed the
pre-eminence of climate change, expressing alarm about the rise of GHGs globally. In its out
come document, it called for cooperative action to coordinate effective international response
to this challenge to ensure reduction of the emission of GHGs. It noted that countries already
experience adverse impacts of climate change such as persistent drought, extreme weather
events, sea-level rise and threats to food security. In this regard, the Conference indicated
adaptation to climate change to be an “urgent global priority”.101
5.29.
The IPCC has developed a sequence of events that describes the complexity of climate
change using a schematic framework (see Figure 5.7). The cross-cutting application of the FDES
is based on this framework.
Figure 5.7
Schematic framework representing anthropogenic drivers, impacts of and responses to
climate change, and their linkages102
99 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change
(2014). Kyoto Protocol, available
from http://unfccc.int
/kyoto_protocol/items/2830.php
(accessed 4 August 2017).
100 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change
(2014). Doha Amendment,
available from http://unfccc
.int/kyoto_protocol/doha
_amendment/items/7362.php
(accessed 4 August 2017).
101 United Nations (2012). Rio+20
outcome document, “The Future
We Want”, available from https://
sustainabledevelopment.un.org
/futurewewant.html (accessed
4 August 2017).
102 Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change. “Climate
Change 2007: Synthesis Report”,
available from www.ipcc.ch
/publications_and_data/ar4
/syr/en/spms1.html (accessed
4 August 2017).
Temperature
change
Precipitation
change
Sea level
rise
Extreme
events
Climate
Change
Governance
Health
Trade
Sociocultural
preferences
Socioeconomic
Development
Equity
Population
Technology
Literacy
Production and
consumption
patterns
EARTH SYSTEMS
HUMAN SYSTEMS
Climate process drivers
Greenhouse
gases
Aerosols
Concentrations
Emissions
Ecosystems
Water
resources
Food
security
Human
health
Impacts and
Vulnerability
Settlements
and society
Adaptation
Mitigation
Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES 2013)126
5.30. As seen, climate change occurs through a chain of events and can be observable at all
levels, from local to global. Climate process drivers are GHG emissions associated with current
production and consumption patterns, which depend heavily on fossil fuels for energy and
transportation. These persistently high emissions lead to high atmospheric CO 2 concentra-
tions, which in turn prevent heat from escaping the earth resulting in increased temperature
and humidity, thus changing climate patterns. The evidence of global warming and climate
change is unequivocal, 103 including global temperature rise, extreme events, sea level rise,
shrinking ice sheets and glacial retreat.104 Climate change evidence refers to the processes that
substantiate the occurrence of changing climate patterns at the global, regional and local levels.
Climate change impacts include, among many others, more intense storms, changes in agri -
cultural productivity, water scarcity and coral bleaching. Mitigation and adaptation processes
are another important part of the sequence of climate change. Mitigation aims to decrease
sources of GHGs, while climate change adaptation is an adjustment in natural or human sys-
tems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm
or exploits beneficial opportunities.105
5.31. Climate change mitigation refers to efforts to reduce or prevent greenhouse gas emis-
sions and may involve using new technologies, incorporating and increasing renewable ener-
gies, making older equipment more energy efficient and changing management practices or
consumer behaviour. Efforts underway around the world range from building high-tech sub-
way systems to installing bicycling paths and walkways. Protecting natural carbon sinks like
forests and oceans, or creating new sinks through silviculture or green agriculture, are also
elements of mitigation.106 The development and deployment of renewable energy technologies
and more efficient use of renewable energy sources will play a significant role in mitigation
of GHG emissions, thereby presenting important opportunities to mitigate climate change
and contribute to sustainable development. Harnessing solar and wind energy, production
of biofuels through new processes, enhanced geothermal systems and emerging ocean tech -
nologies are some areas of potential advancement in this regard. Current strategies to foster
renewable energies, including direct regulation and the creation of economic instruments,
must also be monitored.
5.32. Climate change impact and risks associated with climate change are real and are
already evident in many systems and sectors essential for human livelihood, including water
resources, food security, coastal zones and health. Weather patterns have become more
extreme, with more intense and longer events such as droughts, floods and increased pre -
cipitation over many land areas, as well as more hot days and heat waves. Associated risks
include more frequent and dangerous floods and storms, greater stress on water supplies,
decline in agricultural productivity and food security and further spread of water-related
diseases, particularly in tropical areas.
5.33. The UNFCCC has identified climate adaptation as a key building block for a coordi -
nated response to climate change. The IPCC describes adaptation as an adjustment in natural
or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which
moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities. 107 Adaptation does not take place in
response to climatic changes in isolation, but instead is a response to a series of events or to
previously existing situations that are exacerbated through climate change. As a consequence,
it can be difficult to determine which aspects of adaptation are driven solely or partially by
climate change, as opposed to other factors not related to climate change. This makes it difficult
and challenging to measure adaptation to climate change accurately. In addition, few compre-
hensive studies exist on what adaptation to climate change entails, as well as the costs and ben-
efits of adaptation measures. Nonetheless, adaptation is an important and necessary response
to climate change and statistics and methodologies to assess adaptation should be developed.
103 Evidence of warming oceans,
declining arctic sea ice (extent
and thickness) and ocean
acidification also exists.
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration. “Global Climate
Change. Vital Signs of the
Planet”, available from http://
climate.nasa.gov/evidence/
(accessed 4 August 2017).
104 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change
(2013). “Glossary of Climate
Change Acronyms”, available
from http://unfccc.int
/essential_background/glossary
/items/3666.php#A (accessed
4 August 2017).
105 United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change
(2013). “Glossary of Climate
Change Acronyms”, available
from http://unfccc.int
/essential_background/glossary
/items/3666.php#A (accessed
4 August 2017).
106 United Nations Environment
Programme. Environment for
Development—Climate Change
Mitigation, available from www
.unep.org/climatechange
/mitigation/ (accessed 4 August
2017).
107 Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate Change, Fourth
Assessment Report (2007).
“Climate Change 2007: Impacts,
Adaptation and Vulnerability”,
Cambridge University Press.
Available from www.ipcc.ch/pdf
/assessment-report/ar4/wg2
/ar4_wg2_full_report.pdf
(accessed 4 August 2017).
127
Applications of the FDES to cross-cutting environmental issues
127
Statistics on Climate Change
5.34.
A scientific approach to climate change must be supported by well structured, relevant,
reliable and timely statistics. Simultaneously, the need for underlying data to inform the policy
aspects of climate change remains a pressing requirement. Given their cross-cutting nature,
climate change statistics are relevant to a large proportion of the domain of environment
statistics.
5.35.
The UNECE is working actively with its member countries and other international
organisations to develop climate change-related statistics.108 These efforts primarily address
data that are already collected by statistical offices and can support climate change-related
analysis or research. The work does not focus on scientific data (e.g., meteorological data) that
measure changes in weather and climate. The CES set up a Task Force on Climate Change-
Related Statistics in November 2011. Its work produced the CES’ Recommendations on Climate
Change-Related Statistics, which were endorsed by the CES plenary session in April 2014.109
According to UNECE, climate change-related statistics refer to environmental, social and
economic data that measure the human causes of climate change, the impacts of climate
change on human and natural systems, and the efforts by humans to avoid and adapt to these
consequences.110
5.36.
The information required to analyse climate change includes economic, social and
environmental aspects. The FDES provides a set of environmental topics and individual envi
ronment statistics that are important when informing any country on climate change. These
statistics should be complemented with both social and economic statistics to provide a com
prehensive set of information.
5.37.
With regard to determining and apportioning the appropriate environment statistics
for measurement of climate change, it is important to consider a sequence of changes. Statistics
pertaining to the different steps of the sequence depicted in Figure 5.7 are needed to monitor
climate change and observe its impact on countries and regions.
5.38.
At present, the availability of relevant statistics in most countries varies across the
stages in the sequence. Data on drivers of climate change, climate change evidence, impacts of
climate change, such as natural extreme events and disasters, and mitigation activities are all
fairly developed. However, other impacts of climate change, such as those on ecosystems, are
more difficult to measure and because changes in the climate are not the only explanation of
those impacts. Despite their importance, vulnerability and adaptation statistics are still at the
early stage of development. Considerable statistical progress is expected and needed in these
two areas in the upcoming years.
5.39.
When compiling statistics on climate change at the national level in a particular coun
try, it is important to assess relevance, as well as policy and legal aspects. The relevance of
climate change varies by country, given different political dynamics and the country’s char
acteristics in terms of carbon intensity and its vulnerability to climate change impact. Cli
mate change policies also vary by country. For example, specific climate change strategies and
mitigation and adaptation programmes may be in place or the country may be participating
in a programme to mitigate carbon emissions. When preparing climate change statistics, it is
important to first understand the national relevance, conceptual aspects, existing policies and
reporting needs so that the appropriate statistics may be compiled to inform these policies.
Similarly, on the international level, it is important to understand a country’s participation111
in specific conventions and related MEAs when preparing climate change statistics.
5.40.
The impacts of climate change most often manifest locally and vary greatly by location.
As such, spatial considerations must be taken into account when assessing climate change and
spatial aspects must be included in climate change statistics whenever possible. This enables
policymakers and researchers to better determine the impacts from climate change and the
appropriate mitigation strategies.
108 United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (2014).
“Climate change-related
statistics”, available from www
.unece.org/stats/climate.html
(accessed 4 August 2017).
109 United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (2014).
“Recommendations on Climate
Change-Related Statistics”,
available from www.unece
.org/fileadmin/DAM/stats
/publications/2014/CES_CC
_Recommendations.pdf
(accessed 4 August 2017).
110 United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe (2014).
“Climate change-related
statistics”, available from www
.unece.org/stats/climate.html
(accessed 4 August 2017).
111 Participation means that the
country or area has become
party to the agreements under
the treaty or convention, which
is achieved through various
means, depending on the
country’s circumstances, namely:
accession, acceptance, approval,
formal confirmation, ratification
and succession. Countries or
areas that have signed but not
become party to the agreements
under a given convention or
treaty are not considered to be
participating.