Appendix A. 65 TABLE A.21: Public transfers gap decomposition for the age group 45-65 Country Quantile: 10th 20th 30th 40th 50th 60th 70th 80th 90th Explained Austria -0.022 (0.111) -0.078 (0.086) -0.188** (0.092) -0.308*** (0.092) -0.445*** (0.113) -0.828*** (0.160) -0.629*** (0.114) -0.248*** (0.073) -0.133** (0.059) Belgium -0.246*** (0.069) -0.272*** (0.091) -0.227*** (0.082) -0.264** (0.105) -0.484*** (0.131) -0.131 (0.085) -0.014 (0.056) 0.006 (0.043) -0.049 (0.037) Bulgaria -0.131** (0.061) -0.087 (0.077) -0.145 (0.090) -0.190** (0.092) -0.056 (0.052) -0.034 (0.043) 0.015 (0.039) -0.015 (0.037) 0.004 (0.035) Croatia -0.444*** (0.118) -0.677*** (0.124) -0.468*** (0.099) -0.158*** (0.057) -0.046 (0.039) 0.018 (0.034) 0.063** (0.031) 0.075** (0.031) 0.056* (0.030) Czechia -0.515*** (0.098) -1.000*** (0.174) -0.802*** (0.109) -0.373*** (0.060) -0.201*** (0.045) -0.083** (0.035) -0.049* (0.029) -0.024 (0.026) 0.005 (0.025) Denmark -0.027* (0.016) -0.027* (0.016) -0.136 (0.160) -0.125 (0.084) -0.200*** (0.076) -0.259*** (0.083) -0.993*** (0.231) -0.447*** (0.097) -0.206*** (0.065) Estonia -0.222*** (0.040) -0.175*** (0.049) -0.363*** (0.076) -0.521*** (0.115) -0.232*** (0.076) -0.157*** (0.051) -0.059 (0.039) -0.046 (0.036) -0.031 (0.031) Finland 0.130** (0.051) 0.118* (0.063) 0.089 (0.077) 0.065 (0.126) -0.040 (0.054) -0.063 (0.043) -0.056 (0.039) -0.010 (0.033) -0.018 (0.030) France -0.194*** (0.055) -0.250*** (0.061) -0.500*** (0.084) -0.620*** (0.100) -0.465*** (0.087) -0.204*** (0.057) -0.083* (0.043) -0.017 (0.036) -0.016 (0.034) Germany -0.084** (0.038) -0.060** (0.027) -0.227*** (0.056) -0.249*** (0.048) -0.373*** (0.049) -0.775*** (0.099) -0.340*** (0.055) -0.128*** (0.039) -0.104** (0.044) Greece -0.147*** (0.042) -0.263*** (0.049) -0.423*** (0.052) -0.894*** (0.091) -1.908*** (0.174) -0.670*** (0.088) -0.243*** (0.038) -0.148*** (0.025) -0.066*** (0.019) Hungary -0.034 (0.033) -0.124*** (0.036) -0.321*** (0.055) -0.629*** (0.084) -0.466*** (0.061) -0.424*** (0.056) -0.324*** (0.050) -0.234*** (0.040) -0.223*** (0.040) Latvia -0.072 (0.093) -0.323*** (0.097) -0.515*** (0.122) -0.404*** (0.105) -0.307*** (0.079) -0.229*** (0.073) -0.203*** (0.065) -0.101* (0.059) -0.070 (0.067) Lithuania -0.208** (0.097) -0.187* (0.102) -0.310*** (0.101) -0.209*** (0.081) -0.190*** (0.073) -0.144** (0.070) -0.124** (0.062) -0.130** (0.053) -0.132** (0.054) Netherlands -0.243*** (0.040) -0.367*** (0.049) -0.407*** (0.047) -0.505*** (0.054) -0.876*** (0.090) -1.441*** (0.152) -0.632*** (0.071) -0.256*** (0.051) -0.119*** (0.040) Norway -0.006 (0.049) -0.109** (0.051) -0.172*** (0.053) -0.285*** (0.063) -0.696*** (0.146) -0.868*** (0.165) -0.310*** (0.077) -0.194*** (0.057) -0.147*** (0.051) Poland -0.726*** (0.113) -0.863*** (0.124) -0.572*** (0.085) -0.220*** (0.040) -0.164*** (0.035) -0.106*** (0.037) -0.071* (0.041) -0.029 (0.040) 0.047 (0.038) Portugal -0.168 (0.180) -0.171 (0.109) -0.235* (0.126) -0.416*** (0.150) 0.004 (0.073) 0.053 (0.058) 0.010 (0.051) -0.038 (0.050) -0.041 (0.055) Romania -0.167*** (0.049) -0.240*** (0.049) -0.406*** (0.057) -0.854*** (0.094) -1.436*** (0.125) -2.049*** (0.224) -0.561*** (0.081) -0.339*** (0.061) -0.217*** (0.055) Serbia -0.069*** (0.014) -0.100*** (0.016) -0.131*** (0.019) -0.188*** (0.022) -0.245*** (0.026) -0.369*** (0.033) -0.693*** (0.049) -3.313*** (0.236) -0.529*** (0.055) Slovakia -0.129*** (0.039) -0.194*** (0.048) -0.278*** (0.070) -0.375*** (0.081) -1.217*** (0.175) -0.814*** (0.116) -0.278*** (0.055) -0.147*** (0.041) -0.154*** (0.036) Slovenia -0.089** (0.043) -0.206*** (0.052) -0.297*** (0.057) -0.270*** (0.054) -0.222*** (0.045) -0.147*** (0.034) -0.108*** (0.025) -0.098*** (0.021) -0.100*** (0.022) Spain -0.088 (0.072) -0.037 (0.057) -0.040 (0.046) 0.020 (0.038) 0.020 (0.035) 0.021 (0.044) 0.052 (0.041) 0.044 (0.041) -0.027 (0.042) Sweden -0.155* (0.080) -0.212*** (0.074) -0.249*** (0.073) -0.337*** (0.084) -0.461*** (0.108) -0.427*** (0.140) -0.231** (0.100) -0.076 (0.068) 0.030 (0.058) UK -0.198*** (0.053) -0.230*** (0.052) -0.397*** (0.066) -0.763*** (0.117) -0.773*** (0.105) -0.439*** (0.066) -0.292*** (0.053) -0.222*** (0.046) -0.143*** (0.046) Unexplained Austria 0.090 (0.137) 0.115 (0.104) 0.215** (0.107) 0.310*** (0.102) 0.414*** (0.119) 0.758*** (0.153) 0.740*** (0.115) 0.425*** (0.081) 0.366*** (0.076) Belgium 0.140 (0.091) 0.247** (0.118) 0.190* (0.101) 0.188 (0.116) 0.343*** (0.127) 0.185** (0.089) 0.182*** (0.066) 0.182*** (0.054) 0.224*** (0.054) Bulgaria 0.438*** (0.115) 0.411*** (0.123) 0.323** (0.133) 0.440*** (0.120) 0.253*** (0.068) 0.306*** (0.058) 0.316*** (0.058) 0.416*** (0.059) 0.509*** (0.060) Croatia 0.685*** (0.145) 0.831*** (0.145) 0.555*** (0.105) 0.374*** (0.061) 0.260*** (0.048) 0.236*** (0.046) 0.284*** (0.043) 0.353*** (0.046) 0.218*** (0.051) Czechia 0.502*** (0.133) 0.673*** (0.183) 0.506*** (0.111) 0.215*** (0.064) 0.063 (0.049) 0.071* (0.041) 0.059* (0.036) 0.168*** (0.034) 0.143*** (0.034) Denmark 0.056*** (0.017) 0.113*** (0.017) 1.072*** (0.196) 0.194 (0.124) 0.114 (0.109) -0.270** (0.138) 0.318 (0.265) 0.226* (0.120) 0.185** (0.092) Estonia 0.280*** (0.071) 0.197*** (0.075) 0.389*** (0.111) 0.438*** (0.153) 0.228** (0.098) 0.161** (0.069) 0.013 (0.054) 0.049 (0.052) 0.054 (0.047) Finland -0.086 (0.078) -0.158* (0.088) -0.182* (0.096) 0.005 (0.129) 0.284*** (0.062) 0.211*** (0.052) 0.170*** (0.050) 0.161*** (0.045) 0.200*** (0.045) France 0.230*** (0.079) 0.291*** (0.084) 0.461*** (0.115) 0.697*** (0.118) 0.718*** (0.100) 0.495*** (0.068) 0.375*** (0.057) 0.252*** (0.051) 0.203*** (0.050) Germany -0.058 (0.048) 0.071** (0.035) 0.179*** (0.069) 0.224*** (0.058) 0.074 (0.069) 0.718*** (0.106) 0.328*** (0.061) 0.189*** (0.048) 0.352*** (0.061) Greece 0.295*** (0.063) 0.506*** (0.069) 0.164** (0.077) 0.250* (0.140) 1.102*** (0.152) 0.728*** (0.083) 0.426*** (0.043) 0.387*** (0.037) 0.229*** (0.033) Hungary -0.007 (0.051) -0.030 (0.059) -0.078 (0.078) 0.154* (0.087) 0.116* (0.066) 0.101 (0.062) 0.121** (0.060) 0.058 (0.055) 0.172*** (0.063) Latvia -0.094 (0.134) 0.134 (0.138) 0.305* (0.163) 0.258** (0.127) 0.258*** (0.096) 0.223** (0.091) 0.276*** (0.083) 0.173** (0.080) 0.299*** (0.092) Lithuania 0.483*** (0.139) 0.252* (0.137) 0.451*** (0.139) 0.324*** (0.115) 0.208** (0.100) 0.097 (0.095) 0.170* (0.087) 0.202*** (0.078) 0.257*** (0.084) Netherlands 0.278*** (0.052) 0.436*** (0.064) 0.322*** (0.062) 0.338*** (0.073) 0.502*** (0.116) 1.392*** (0.165) 0.797*** (0.093) 0.345*** (0.072) 0.386*** (0.060) Norway -0.115 (0.076) -0.311*** (0.079) -0.193** (0.088) -0.650*** (0.105) -0.432*** (0.157) 0.415** (0.170) 0.245*** (0.084) 0.266*** (0.070) 0.274*** (0.072) Poland 0.450*** (0.129) 0.530*** (0.139) 0.344*** (0.091) 0.123** (0.048) 0.146*** (0.045) 0.140*** (0.047) 0.212*** (0.053) 0.288*** (0.051) 0.340*** (0.047) Portugal 0.132 (0.277) 0.233 (0.153) 0.298* (0.159) 0.807*** (0.177) 0.411*** (0.091) 0.252*** (0.072) 0.301*** (0.066) 0.475*** (0.067) 0.634*** (0.090) Romania 0.228*** (0.075) 0.194*** (0.072) 0.284*** (0.090) 0.518*** (0.154) -0.128 (0.129) 1.624*** (0.235) 0.554*** (0.096) 0.427*** (0.083) 0.500*** (0.079) Serbia 0.054** (0.022) 0.069*** (0.025) 0.075*** (0.028) 0.135*** (0.031) 0.173*** (0.036) 0.173*** (0.049) -0.548*** (0.104) 2.776*** (0.238) 0.529*** (0.078) Slovakia 0.047 (0.063) 0.038 (0.079) -0.321*** (0.113) -0.180 (0.139) 0.222 (0.161) 0.366*** (0.101) 0.265*** (0.059) 0.215*** (0.055) 0.264*** (0.053) Slovenia 0.239*** (0.078) 0.289*** (0.081) 0.263*** (0.081) 0.111 (0.070) -0.031 (0.052) 0.018 (0.038) 0.119*** (0.034) 0.114*** (0.033) 0.106*** (0.039) Spain 0.353*** (0.116) 0.245*** (0.088) 0.231*** (0.069) 0.191*** (0.061) 0.074 (0.050) 0.212*** (0.056) 0.204*** (0.052) 0.253*** (0.055) 0.419*** (0.065) Sweden 0.062 (0.111) 0.050 (0.109) 0.211* (0.108) -0.047 (0.125) -0.056 (0.137) -0.051 (0.161) 0.014 (0.119) 0.008 (0.089) -0.022 (0.080) UK 0.047 (0.076) 0.272*** (0.082) 0.374*** (0.097) 0.303** (0.137) 0.653*** (0.123) 0.412*** (0.083) 0.390*** (0.072) 0.347*** (0.068) 0.316*** (0.071) Note: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01 Standard errors in parenthesis. Source: author’s calculations from EU-SILC 2016 data.
66 Appendix A. TABLE A.22: Public transfers gap decomposition for the age group >65 Country Quantile: 10th 20th 30th 40th 50th 60th 70th 80th 90th Explained Austria 0.113** (0.057) 0.172*** (0.042) 0.128*** (0.032) 0.111*** (0.029) 0.116*** (0.025) 0.092*** (0.022) 0.074*** (0.021) 0.084*** (0.022) 0.137*** (0.033) Belgium 0.062 (0.041) 0.081*** (0.029) 0.076*** (0.024) 0.057*** (0.022) 0.057*** (0.021) 0.063*** (0.023) 0.101*** (0.018) 0.103*** (0.020) 0.119*** (0.030) Bulgaria 0.086*** (0.022) 0.066*** (0.018) 0.049*** (0.014) 0.048*** (0.014) 0.049*** (0.015) 0.046*** (0.016) 0.057*** (0.017) 0.060*** (0.022) 0.026 (0.028) Croatia 0.784*** (0.150) 0.291*** (0.050) 0.285*** (0.033) 0.260*** (0.026) 0.237*** (0.027) 0.145*** (0.023) 0.127*** (0.022) 0.078*** (0.028) 0.068 (0.053) Czechia 0.016** (0.008) 0.014** (0.006) 0.013* (0.008) 0.015 (0.012) 0.007 (0.007) 0.006 (0.006) -0.004 (0.007) -0.002 (0.010) -0.007 (0.009) Denmark -0.118*** (0.017) -0.098*** (0.012) -0.102*** (0.011) -0.099*** (0.012) -0.090*** (0.015) -0.091*** (0.017) -0.098*** (0.023) -0.052** (0.026) 0.013 (0.020) Estonia 0.080*** (0.029) 0.044** (0.020) 0.018* (0.011) 0.012 (0.009) 0.002 (0.008) -0.001 (0.009) -0.006 (0.009) -0.015 (0.015) -0.016 (0.021) Finland 0.005 (0.021) 0.020 (0.022) 0.012 (0.021) 0.048** (0.021) 0.055*** (0.021) 0.072*** (0.021) 0.084*** (0.019) 0.122*** (0.019) 0.117*** (0.020) France 0.044 (0.027) 0.019 (0.021) 0.017 (0.018) -0.003 (0.016) 0.012 (0.017) 0.042** (0.018) 0.036* (0.020) 0.043* (0.024) 0.096*** (0.026) Germany 0.158*** (0.048) 0.101*** (0.027) 0.055** (0.022) 0.030 (0.019) 0.038** (0.016) 0.040*** (0.015) 0.053*** (0.016) 0.080*** (0.022) 0.127*** (0.028) Greece 0.118*** (0.022) 0.199*** (0.024) 0.206*** (0.043) 0.262*** (0.036) 0.243*** (0.028) 0.222*** (0.029) 0.157*** (0.028) 0.144*** (0.015) 0.099*** (0.011) Hungary 0.019 (0.042) 0.004 (0.027) 0.035 (0.022) 0.018 (0.022) 0.036* (0.022) 0.054*** (0.021) 0.065*** (0.022) 0.072*** (0.027) 0.091*** (0.027) Latvia 0.079** (0.034) 0.027 (0.018) 0.032* (0.017) 0.032** (0.016) 0.022 (0.017) 0.039** (0.019) 0.061** (0.024) 0.112*** (0.035) 0.101** (0.041) Lithuania 0.048 (0.042) 0.054* (0.030) 0.055** (0.026) 0.062*** (0.024) 0.031 (0.023) 0.029 (0.022) 0.029 (0.025) 0.035 (0.034) 0.052 (0.037) Netherlands 0.083** (0.042) 0.091*** (0.027) 0.110*** (0.025) 0.135*** (0.025) 0.185*** (0.026) 0.195*** (0.021) 0.185*** (0.018) 0.205*** (0.018) 0.212*** (0.023) Norway -0.039 (0.028) -0.020 (0.022) 0.002 (0.023) -0.002 (0.023) 0.029 (0.020) 0.030 (0.019) 0.042** (0.017) 0.058*** (0.017) 0.050** (0.022) Poland 0.038 (0.028) 0.046* (0.026) 0.069*** (0.023) 0.080*** (0.021) 0.048*** (0.019) 0.036** (0.018) 0.047*** (0.018) 0.041** (0.020) 0.022 (0.027) Portugal 0.025 (0.020) 0.122*** (0.022) 0.129*** (0.023) 0.152*** (0.025) 0.197*** (0.028) 0.235*** (0.032) 0.284*** (0.037) 0.221*** (0.034) 0.142*** (0.036) Romania 0.159*** (0.035) 0.300*** (0.033) 0.269*** (0.025) 0.191*** (0.020) 0.164*** (0.019) 0.180*** (0.017) 0.162*** (0.019) 0.119*** (0.016) 0.085*** (0.019) Serbia 0.597*** (0.085) 0.796*** (0.077) 0.414*** (0.036) 0.282*** (0.030) 0.262*** (0.023) 0.203*** (0.021) 0.165*** (0.020) 0.121*** (0.022) 0.115*** (0.028) Slovakia 0.023 (0.018) 0.028* (0.015) 0.007 (0.013) -0.011 (0.013) -0.021 (0.016) -0.021 (0.017) -0.031* (0.017) -0.030 (0.019) -0.009 (0.020) Slovenia 0.125*** (0.027) 0.135*** (0.021) 0.098*** (0.018) 0.090*** (0.015) 0.079*** (0.016) 0.072*** (0.017) 0.064*** (0.021) 0.083*** (0.030) 0.087*** (0.026) Spain 0.237*** (0.050) 0.273*** (0.018) 0.267*** (0.022) 0.232*** (0.028) 0.264*** (0.032) 0.254*** (0.025) 0.206*** (0.023) 0.187*** (0.022) 0.085*** (0.015) Sweden -0.061** (0.029) 0.019 (0.026) 0.031 (0.020) 0.037** (0.017) 0.057*** (0.014) 0.054*** (0.013) 0.066*** (0.014) 0.062*** (0.020) 0.089*** (0.029) UK -0.056*** (0.021) -0.053*** (0.019) -0.042** (0.020) -0.057*** (0.019) -0.044** (0.020) -0.030 (0.022) -0.021 (0.025) 0.008 (0.026) 0.067*** (0.024) Unexplained Austria 0.701*** (0.082) 0.540*** (0.062) 0.500*** (0.044) 0.476*** (0.038) 0.457*** (0.035) 0.419*** (0.032) 0.367*** (0.031) 0.299*** (0.032) 0.202*** (0.041) Belgium 0.882*** (0.138) 0.243*** (0.051) 0.178*** (0.032) 0.197*** (0.028) 0.210*** (0.027) 0.213*** (0.029) 0.164*** (0.024) 0.166*** (0.026) 0.135*** (0.039) Bulgaria 0.051 (0.032) 0.158*** (0.027) 0.199*** (0.021) 0.192*** (0.021) 0.212*** (0.022) 0.246*** (0.023) 0.281*** (0.025) 0.331*** (0.031) 0.426*** (0.041) Croatia -0.460*** (0.166) 0.027 (0.057) -0.082** (0.038) 0.016 (0.030) 0.082*** (0.031) 0.178*** (0.028) 0.161*** (0.027) 0.130*** (0.032) 0.230*** (0.056) Czechia 0.155*** (0.011) 0.150*** (0.008) 0.103*** (0.011) 0.082*** (0.014) 0.137*** (0.008) 0.142*** (0.008) 0.091*** (0.010) 0.121*** (0.012) 0.035** (0.014) Denmark 0.123*** (0.020) 0.130*** (0.017) 0.097*** (0.017) 0.078*** (0.019) 0.046** (0.023) 0.064** (0.027) 0.135*** (0.035) 0.175*** (0.040) 0.123*** (0.037) Estonia -0.180*** (0.039) -0.092*** (0.026) -0.018 (0.014) -0.001 (0.011) 0.021* (0.011) 0.025** (0.012) 0.038*** (0.013) 0.086*** (0.020) 0.123*** (0.028) Finland 0.126*** (0.029) 0.100*** (0.028) 0.152*** (0.027) 0.132*** (0.026) 0.128*** (0.027) 0.114*** (0.026) 0.134*** (0.024) 0.127*** (0.024) 0.213*** (0.026) France 0.843*** (0.066) 0.493*** (0.035) 0.428*** (0.028) 0.363*** (0.025) 0.292*** (0.024) 0.247*** (0.025) 0.216*** (0.027) 0.239*** (0.032) 0.230*** (0.034) Germany 0.947*** (0.068) 0.737*** (0.047) 0.580*** (0.034) 0.526*** (0.028) 0.463*** (0.024) 0.392*** (0.024) 0.325*** (0.024) 0.284*** (0.030) 0.299*** (0.035) Greece 0.025 (0.028) 0.124*** (0.028) 0.216*** (0.045) 0.128*** (0.038) 0.156*** (0.030) 0.146*** (0.030) 0.267*** (0.029) 0.226*** (0.018) 0.196*** (0.018) Hungary 0.117* (0.060) 0.092*** (0.035) 0.074** (0.029) 0.093*** (0.028) 0.078*** (0.026) 0.101*** (0.025) 0.108*** (0.026) 0.125*** (0.033) 0.128*** (0.032) Latvia -0.098** (0.047) -0.004 (0.024) 0.027 (0.022) 0.049** (0.020) 0.080*** (0.021) 0.077*** (0.024) 0.094*** (0.030) 0.094** (0.042) 0.155*** (0.051) Lithuania 0.090* (0.055) 0.117*** (0.040) 0.120*** (0.036) 0.113*** (0.033) 0.137*** (0.031) 0.119*** (0.029) 0.133*** (0.033) 0.147*** (0.043) 0.125** (0.050) Netherlands 0.193*** (0.052) 0.294*** (0.035) 0.459*** (0.032) 0.438*** (0.034) 0.325*** (0.036) 0.315*** (0.027) 0.343*** (0.023) 0.336*** (0.023) 0.366*** (0.029) Norway 0.440*** (0.037) 0.362*** (0.031) 0.302*** (0.030) 0.306*** (0.030) 0.251*** (0.028) 0.217*** (0.026) 0.184*** (0.024) 0.156*** (0.024) 0.153*** (0.032) Poland 0.048 (0.035) 0.106*** (0.033) 0.125*** (0.029) 0.140*** (0.026) 0.195*** (0.023) 0.216*** (0.022) 0.203*** (0.022) 0.223*** (0.024) 0.259*** (0.035) Portugal 0.157*** (0.026) 0.142*** (0.027) 0.155*** (0.029) 0.157*** (0.033) 0.157*** (0.034) 0.183*** (0.037) 0.272*** (0.042) 0.387*** (0.043) 0.314*** (0.047) Romania 0.011 (0.044) 0.067* (0.038) 0.135*** (0.029) 0.205*** (0.025) 0.089*** (0.022) 0.101*** (0.018) 0.213*** (0.020) 0.313*** (0.020) 0.107*** (0.027) Serbia 1.022*** (0.154) -0.412*** (0.088) 0.078* (0.043) 0.166*** (0.037) 0.132*** (0.032) 0.168*** (0.030) 0.143*** (0.029) 0.124*** (0.031) 0.147*** (0.041) Slovakia 0.099*** (0.024) 0.078*** (0.021) 0.064*** (0.018) 0.062*** (0.017) 0.073*** (0.021) 0.070*** (0.022) 0.072*** (0.023) 0.086*** (0.026) 0.084*** (0.029) Slovenia 0.083** (0.039) 0.042 (0.028) 0.102*** (0.024) 0.105*** (0.020) 0.085*** (0.021) 0.083*** (0.022) 0.109*** (0.027) 0.155*** (0.038) 0.188*** (0.039) Spain 0.212*** (0.052) -0.153*** (0.023) -0.027 (0.025) 0.044 (0.030) 0.199*** (0.034) 0.264*** (0.028) 0.315*** (0.030) 0.314*** (0.029) 0.361*** (0.032) Sweden 0.317*** (0.038) 0.226*** (0.035) 0.205*** (0.026) 0.202*** (0.022) 0.209*** (0.018) 0.200*** (0.017) 0.186*** (0.018) 0.234*** (0.025) 0.286*** (0.038) UK 0.565*** (0.030) 0.508*** (0.037) 0.425*** (0.032) 0.395*** (0.030) 0.368*** (0.032) 0.311*** (0.034) 0.340*** (0.037) 0.354*** (0.038) 0.302*** (0.042) Note: * p < 0.10, ** p < 0.05, *** p < 0.01 Standard errors in parenthesis. Source: author’s calculations from EU-SILC 2016 data.