Traffic congestion results in various impacts, including wasted time and fuel, increased emissions, and economic losses. A study indicated that the economic value of time wasted due to congestion was approximately $60 billion, which is significant compared to the public health impacts attributed to pollution, estimated at $31 billion in 2000 [4]. 

Additionally, traffic congestion can affect public health by increasing ambient concentrations of fine particulate matter (PM), which has been linked to premature mortality, particularly from cardiovascular events [4]. The interaction of traffic congestion with demographic factors and atmospheric conditions further influences these public health implications [4][6].

What are the impacts of traffic congestion?

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