49 Components of the FDES and the Basic Set of Environment Statistics 49 Table 3.2.1.2 Statistics and related information for Topic 2.1.2 Component 2: Environmental Resources and their Use Subcomponent 2.1: Mineral Resources Topic 2.1.2: Production and trade of minerals Statistics and related information Category of measurement Potential aggregations and scales Methodological guidance (Bold text—Core Set/Tier 1; regular text—Tier 2; italicized text—Tier 3) a. Production of minerals Mass, volume •• By mineral (e.g., metal ores including precious metals and rare earths, coal, oil, gas, stone, sand and clay, chemical and fertilizer minerals, salt, gemstones, abrasive minerals, graphite, asphalt, natural solid bitumen, quartz, mica) •• National •• Subnational Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding Systems (HS) 2012, Section V, Chapters 25 and 26, and Section VI Chapter 28 b. Imports of minerals Currency, mass, volume c. Exports of minerals Currency, mass, volume Subcomponent 2.2: Energy Resources Topic 2.2.1: Stocks and changes of energy resources 3.91. Energy can be produced from non-renewable or renewable sources. Non-renewable energy resources are the minerals used for energy production. These environmental resources cannot be renewed in any human timescale, so their extraction and use in the economy depletes the resource, limiting its availability for future generations. Statistics on the magnitude of their stocks through time are required to assist in the sustainable management of these resources. 3.92. Stocks of non-renewable energy resources are defined as the amount of known deposits of mineral energy resources. They include fossil fuels (e.g., natural gas, crude oil and natural gas liquids, oil shale, natural bitumen and extra heavy oil, coal and lignite), peat, uranium and thorium ores. Classes of known mineral energy deposits include commercially recoverable deposits, potential commercially recoverable deposits, and non-commercial and other known deposits. 3.93. Extraction of non-renewable energy resources reflects the quantity of the resource physically removed from the deposit during a period of time (usually one year). The differ ence between the opening and closing stocks of energy resources for a particular year result largely from extraction. New discoveries, reappraisals and reclassifications of stocks, as well as catastrophic losses, can also influence the difference between opening and closing stocks. 3.94. Main sources of statistics about stocks of non-renewable energy resources are geological surveys and inventories, while the institutional data collection partners are the mining and energy authorities at the national and subnational levels. Statistics about extraction of non- renewable energy resources can be obtained from economic statistics on mining, as well as energy statistics. 3.95. Energy from renewable sources is captured from sources that replenish themselves. Renewable energy includes solar (photovoltaic and thermal), hydroelectric, geothermal, tidal action, wave action, marine (non-tidal currents, temperature differences and salinity gradi ents), wind and biomass energy. All are replenished naturally, although their flow may be limited. 3.96. Stocks of renewable energy resources are not subject to depletion in the same manner as non-renewable energy resources. Additionally, their stocks are difficult to define accurately, except for biomass. Even so, it would make sense to measure only those resources with slow replenishment rates (such as wood). Furthermore, biomass may have both energy and non- energy uses, which makes it difficult to distinguish between energy resources and non-energy
Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES 2013) 50 resources. Thus, stocks of renewable energy resources are not included in the FDES. However, the consumption of renewable energy resources can be measured in terms of energy produced (e.g., hydroelectric power, solar energy generation and wind energy production) and is included in the FDES under Topic 2.2.2: Production, trade and consumption of energy. Table 3.2.2.1 Statistics and related information for Topic 2.2.1 Component 2: Environmental Resources and their Use Subcomponent 2.2: Energy Resources Topic 2.2.1:Stocks and changes of energy resources Statistics and related information Category of measurement Potential aggregations and scales Methodological guidance (Bold text—Core Set/Tier 1; regular text—Tier 2; italicized text—Tier 3) a. Energy resources •• By resource (e.g., natural gas, crude oil and natural gas liquids, oil shale, and extra heavy oil (includes oil extracted from oil sands), coal and lignite, peat, non- metallic minerals except for coal or peat, uranium and thorium ores) •• National •• Subnational •• UNSD: International Recommendations for Energy Statistics (IRES) •• International Energy Agency (IEA) Energy Statistics Manual •• SEEA Central Framework (2012) asset and physical flow accounts •• UNFC 2009 •• ISIC Rev. 4, Section B, Divisions 05-09 •• HS 2012, Section V, Chapter 27
- Stocks of commercially recoverable resources Mass, volume
- New discoveries Mass, volume
- Upward reappraisals Mass, volume
- Upward reclassifications Mass, volume
- Extraction Mass, volume
- Catastrophic losses Mass, volume
- Downward reappraisals Mass, volume
- Downward reclassifications Mass, volume
- Stocks of potentially commercially recoverable resources Mass, volume
- Stocks of non-commercial and other known resources Mass, volume Topic 2.2.2: Production, trade and consumption of energy 3.97. Energy production refers to the capture, extraction or manufacture of fuels or other energy products in forms which are ready for general consumption. Energy products are produced in a number of ways, depending on the energy source. Energy production, trans formation, distribution and consumption are processes characterized by different efficiency rates, which cause distinct environmental impacts (including land use change, air pollution, GHG emissions and waste). Therefore, producing statistics to describe these activities is key to informing environmental sustainability policy. 3.98. Total energy production originates from sources that can be classified as non-renewable or renewable. These constitute key environment statistics that can assist when analysing the sustainability of the energy mix at the national level. 3.99. Energy production includes the production of primary and secondary energy. Primary energy refers to energy sources as found in their natural state, as opposed to derived or sec ondary energy, which is the result of the transformation of primary sources. Energy imports and exports refer to the amount of fuels, electricity and heat obtained from or supplied to other countries. Total energy supply is intended to show flows that represent energy entering the national territory for the first time, energy removed from the national territory and stock changes. It represents the amount of energy available on the national territory during the refer ence period. Final energy consumption refers to the consumption of primary and secondary energy by households and through economic activities. 3.100. Statistics on the production, trade and consumption of energy can be obtained from energy statistics, foreign trade statistics and energy balances that are available from national energy authorities or NSOs in most countries. The most important statistics on energy produc tion reflect the different types of non-renewable and renewable energy sources and the produc tion of primary and secondary energy, including the amount of electricity produced. Both total
51 Components of the FDES and the Basic Set of Environment Statistics 51 production of primary and secondary energy can be disaggregated by energy resource used or fuel, as produced regularly for national energy balances. Statistics on energy consumption should be broken down by economic activity (based on ISIC) and households. Energy con sumption by certain sectors (e.g., international transport) or population groups (tourists) may also be estimated for specific analytic purposes. 3.101. The production of energy from non-renewable and renewable sources is captured under the economic activities ISIC Rev. 4, Section B, Divisions 05 Mining of coal and lignite and 06 Extraction of crude petroleum and natural gas; Section C, Division 19 Manufacture of coke and refined petroleum products; and Section D, Division 35 Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply. Energy products resulting from extraction and transformation activities can be classified according to the Standard International Energy Product Classification (SIEC) included in the IRES.42 Table 3.2.2.2 Statistics and related information for Topic 2.2.2 Component 2: Environmental Resources and their Use Subcomponent 2.2: Energy Resources Topic 2.2.2: Production, trade and consumption of energy Statistics and related information Category of measurement Potential aggregations and scales Methodological guidance (Bold text—Core Set/Tier 1; regular text—Tier 2; italicized text—Tier 3) a. Production of energy •• By non-renewable resource (e.g., petroleum, natural gas, coal, nuclear fuels, non-sustainable firewood, waste, other non-renewables) •• By renewable resource (e.g., solar, hydroelectric, geothermal, tidal action, wave action, marine, wind, biomass) •• National •• Subnational •• UNSD: IRES •• IEA Energy Statistics Manual •• Joint Wood Energy Enquiry (UNECE-FAO Forestry and Timber Section)
- Total production Energy unit, mass, volume
- Production from non-renewable sources Energy unit, mass, volume
- Production from renewable sources Energy unit, mass, volume
- Primary energy production Energy unit, mass, volume •• By primary energy resource (e.g., petroleum, natural gas, coal, hydroenergy, geothermal, nuclear fuels, cane products, other primary) •• By secondary energy product (e.g., electricity, lique fied petroleum gas, gasoline/alcohol, kerosene, diesel oil, fuel oil, coke, charcoal, gases, other secondary) •• National •• Subnational
- Imports of energy Energy unit, mass, volume
- Exports of energy Energy unit, mass, volume
- Secondary energy production Energy unit, mass, volume b. Total energy supply Energy unit, mass, volume •• By energy product c. Final consumption of energy Energy unit, mass, volume •• By households •• By ISIC economic activity •• By tourists •• National •• Subnational Subcomponent 2.3: Land 3.102. Land is a unique environmental resource that delineates the space in which economic activities and environmental processes take place and within which environmental resources and economic assets are located. The two primary aspects are land cover (see also Topic 1.2.1: Land cover) and land use. They are closely related; while land cover describes the biophysical aspects of land, land use refers to the functional aspects of land. Changes in land cover can be the result of natural processes and of land use changes. Generally, the total area of a country remains unchanged from one period to the next.43 Hence, changes in the stocks of land com prise changes within and between stocks in different classes of land cover and land use (land restructuring). 42 United Nations Statistics Division (2011). International Recommendations for Energy Statistics (draft version), available from https://unstats.un.org /unsd/energy/ires/IRES_edited2 .pdf (accessed 4 August 2017). 43 That is, unless there are geopolitical changes, border corrections, natural events or catastrophes, or land reclamation.
Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES 2013) 52 3.103. The total area of a country is the area enclosed by its inland borders and, if applicable, the sea.44 The land area of a country is the total area minus inland waters. While inland waters (e.g., rivers, lakes and ponds) are included in land use, marine water areas may be included only in a broader concept of land use. Certain types of land use analyses may include coastal waters (internal waters) or even Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs). Topic 2.3.1: Land use 3.104. Land use reflects both the activities undertaken and the institutional arrangements put in place for a given area for the purposes of economic production, or the maintenance and restoration of environmental functions. Land being “used” means the existence of some kind of human activity or management. Consequently, there are areas of land that are “not in use” by human activities. These areas are important from an ecological point of view. Land use statistics cover both land in use and land not in use. Statistics on land use are usually obtained through the combination of field surveys and remote sensing (mostly satellite images). Land use data may also be obtained from administrative land registers where available. 3.105. A reference framework for the interim classification of land use is provided in the SEEA-CF 45 as agreed after a comprehensive global consultation process. The development of the land use classification included in the SEEA-CF, led by the FAO, has been based on prac tices already in use in major international and national land use databases, adjusted to address the needs which have arisen during this global consultation process. The aim of the land use classification presented in the SEEA-CF is twofold: (i) to provide a reference framework for the compilation and aggregation of data at the international level and (ii) to provide guidance to countries in establishing a land use classification scheme. For more information, see Annex D: Classifications and environment statistics. 3.106. This topic also includes statistics on land use pertaining to specific agricultural and forest management methods, in particular, land under organic farming, irrigation, agrofor estry, sustainable forest management and different ownership categories. These statistics are important because they describe how the use and management of land and biological resources impact the environment. 3.107. Changes in land use can be reflected by statistics on changes within and between the different land use classes. Changes in land use will redistribute the area of the country among the land use categories. If presented in matrix form, the information will show how an increase or decrease in one category contributes to a decrease or increase in other land use categories. Land cover statistics can also be presented in a similar fashion. 3.108. Cross-combination of land use and land cover categories show the kind of human activities are carried out in the various land cover areas. Changes in land use frequently result in changes of land cover. However, land in different land cover categories will also increase or decrease owing to managed or natural expansion or regression. Statistics on land cover and its changes also provide information on the extent of different ecosystems (see also Topic 1.2.2: Ecosystems and biodiversity). 44 The boundaries between land and sea vary considerably across countries based on a country’s geographical features. The conventions that determine country area, particularly the definition of baselines, focus on the boundary between land and sea and have been agreed internationally in the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). Text of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, available from www.un.org/Depts/los /convention_agreements/texts /unclos/unclos_e.pdf (accessed 4 August 2017). 45 United Nations, European Union, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, International Monetary Fund, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, and the World Bank (2014). System of Environmental- Economic Accounting 2012— Central Framework, available from http://unstats.un.org /unsd/envaccounting/seeaRev /SEEA_CF_Final_en.pdf (accessed 4 August 2017).