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41 Components of the FDES and the Basic Set of Environment Statistics 41 Annex D: Classifications and environment statistics). Further information is also available in the WHO Air Quality Guidelines.37,38 3.54. National monitoring of air quality is usually limited to urban settlements where pol­ luting activities and the affected population are concentrated. Air quality in urban settlements is also relevant to Component 5: Human Settlements and Environmental Health. Air quality monitoring is also conducted frequently in ecosystems or habitats of outstanding value or of high vulnerability. Statistics based on these measurements may be used to describe certain aspects of ecosystem health. 3.55. The statistics pertaining to concentration of gases in the atmosphere that are climate change drivers under this topic also include global concentrations of the two main GHGs which are carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4). Table 3.1.3.1 Statistics and related information for Topic 1.3.1 Component 1: Environmental Conditions and Quality Subcomponent 1.3: Environmental Quality Topic 1.3.1: Air quality Statistics and related information Category of measurement Potential aggregations and scales Methodological guidance (Bold text—Core Set/Tier 1; regular text—Tier 2; italicized text—Tier 3) a. Local air quality   •• By point measurement •• Subnational •• Daily maximum •• Monthly maximum and average •• Yearly maximum and average •• WHO Air Quality Guidelines— Global Update 2005, Particu­ late matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide •• WHO Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide, Global Update 2005, Summary of risk assessment •• UNECE Standard Statistical Classification of Ambient Air Quality (1990)  

  1. Concentration level of particulate matter (PM10) Concentration  
  2. Concentration level of particulate matter (PM2.5) Concentration  
  3. Concentration level of tropospheric ozone (O3) Concentration  
  4. Concentration level of carbon monoxide (CO) Concentration  
  5. Concentration level of sulphur dioxide (SO2) Concentration  
  6. Concentration levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx) Concentration  
  7. Concentration levels of heavy metals Concentration  
  8. Concentration levels of non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) Concentration  
  9. Concentration levels of dioxins Concentration  
  10. Concentration levels of furans Concentration  
  11. Concentration levels of other pollutants Concentration  
  12. Number of days when maximum allowable levels were exceeded per year Number By pollutant b. Global atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases Global WMO  
  13. Global atmospheric concentration level of carbon dioxide (CO2) Concentration  
  14. Global atmospheric concentration level of methane (CH4) Concentration Topic 1.3.2:  Freshwater quality 3.56. Without sufficient quantities of good quality freshwater, ecosystems and humans can­ not survive. Precipitation, aquifers, lakes, rivers, coastal zones and oceans are all intercon­ nected in the water cycle, so the choice of where to measure or monitor pollutants and which pollutants to monitor will depend on local and national priorities, ecosystem characteristics and resources available. Identification of the pollutants that are most relevant for monitoring depends on several factors. These include the immediate and subsequent water uses that are important to humans and the nature of the pollutants found in water bodies and watersheds that affect the country’s biocapacities and local ecological equilibriums. 3.57. The quality of freshwater can be described based on concentrations of nutrients and chlorophyll, organic matter, pathogens, metals and organic contaminants, and by physical and chemical characteristics in surface water and groundwater. Pollutants found in groundwater are important but systematic measurements are often difficult. 37 World Health Organization (2006). Air Quality Guidelines— Global Update 2005, Particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide, available from www.euro.who.int/__data /assets/pdf_file/0005/78638 /E90038.pdf?ua=1 (accessed 4 August 2017). 38 World Health Organization (2006). Air quality guidelines for particulate matter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide, Global Update 2005, Summary of risk assessment, available from http://whqlibdoc .who.int/hq/2006/WHO_SDE _PHE_OEH_06.02_eng .pdf?ua=1 (accessed 4 August 2017).

Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES 2013) 42 3.58. The fluidity of this medium presents a challenge with regard to selecting the most important spatial locations and relevant frequency for monitoring stations and programmes. This can cause complications with regard to spatial and temporal aggregation when producing data sets. For example, the significance of pollutant concentrations can vary widely at different points in a water body depending on multiple factors, including where and when the highest concentrations of pollutants are discharged into the body. Seasonal variations in the volume of freshwater can also affect the concentrations of pollutants. 3.59. The quality and quantity of freshwater are highly inter-related. Highly polluted water may not be usable, thereby reducing the actual usable quantity of water significantly. In addi­ tion, the costs of treating polluted water may be high. 3.60. Data for water quality statistics are produced primarily by monitoring stations. Moni­ toring programmes are usually developed when a policy or quality norm is set up for specific locations that show the most problematic signs of pollution. Most monitoring stations and reg­ ular monitoring programmes are aimed at measuring specific pollutants. The data from these monitoring stations require further processing to produce environment statistics on the water quality of specific locations. Typically, the resulting environment statistics will be produced and be relevant for specific local areas or parts of rivers and lakes, but are not representative at the national level. 3.61. The UNECE Standard Statistical Classification of Surface Freshwater Quality for the Maintenance of Aquatic Life (1992) lists the most important substances, parameters and statis­ tics needed to assess freshwater quality (see Annex D: Classifications and environment statistics). Table 3.1.3.2 Statistics and related information for Topic 1.3.2 Component 1: Environmental Conditions and Quality Subcomponent 1.3: Environmental Quality Topic 1.3.2: Freshwater quality Statistics and related information Category of measurement Potential aggregations and scales Methodological guidance (Bold text—Core Set/Tier 1; regular text—Tier 2; italicized text—Tier 3) a. Nutrients and chlorophyll •• By water body •• By watershed/river basin •• By surface or groundwater •• By point measurement •• By type of water resource •• UNECE Standard Statistical Classification of Freshwater Quality for the Maintenance of Aquatic Life (1992) •• UN Environment Programme (UNEP) Global Environment Monitoring System—Water (GEMS-Water) •• WHO  

  1. Concentration level of nitrogen Concentration  
  2. Concentration level of phosphorous Concentration  
  3. Concentration level of chlorophyll A Concentration b. Organic matter  
  4. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) Concentration  
  5. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) Concentration c. Pathogens  
  6. Concentration levels of faecal coliforms Concentration d. Metals (e.g., mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic, cadmium)  
  7. Concentration levels in sediment and freshwater Concentration  
  8. Concentration levels in freshwater organisms Concentration e. Organic contaminants (e.g., PCBs, DDT, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols, radioactive waste) •• UNECE Standard Statistical Classification of Freshwater Quality for the Maintenance of Aquatic Life (1992) •• UNEP GEMS-Water •• Stockholm Convention  
  9. Concentration levels in sediment and freshwater Concentration  
  10. Concentration levels in freshwater organisms Concentration f. Physical and chemical characteristics •• UNECE Standard Statistical Classification of Freshwater Quality for the Maintenance of Aquatic Life (1992) •• UNEP GEMS-Water  
  11. pH/acidity/alkalinity Level  
  12. Temperature Degrees  
  13. Total suspended solids (TSS) Concentration  
  14. Salinity Concentration  
  15. Dissolved oxygen (DO) Concentration g. Plastic waste and other freshwater debris  
  16. Amount of plastic waste and other debris Area, mass

43 Components of the FDES and the Basic Set of Environment Statistics 43 Topic 1.3.3:  Marine water quality 3.62. Oceans cover about 70 per cent of the earth’s surface. They play a critical role in regulat­ ing weather and atmospheric processes, absorb 30 per cent of emitted CO2, are a fundamental part of the water cycle and are home to species and varied ecosystems worldwide. Oceans also provide important ecosystem services for humans, with food at the forefront. Oceans are under tremendous anthropogenic pressure, including both chemical and physical contamination and over-exploitation. Marine water and ecosystems have been increasingly polluted in the last century, with critical impacts on biodiversity. Degradation is accompanied by depletion of aquatic resources based on human exploitation. 3.63. Relevant statistics about marine and coastal water quality and pollutant concentrations may include, but are not limited to, nutrients and chlorophyll, organic matter, pathogens, metals, organic contaminants, physical and chemical characteristics, and coral bleaching. 3.64. The most commonly monitored marine pollutants and associated phenomena, such as eutrophication and red tide, can be analysed as relevant in local, national or supranational terms, based on the type of pollution and effect. 3.65. Data sources for marine water quality statistics are typically either national or inter­ national monitoring stations, associated with scientific research or compliance with policy objectives and targets. Monitoring programmes are usually constructed when scientific interest in research exists and/or when policy or quality norms are established for specific areas that show the most problematic signs of marine pollution. The data from these monitoring stations require further processing to produce environment statistics on the water quality of specific locations. 3.66. Spatial and temporal considerations are very important when constructing statistics on this topic. For instance, with regard to oceanic and marine water pollutant concentrations, most monitoring stations and water regular quality monitoring programmes focus on surface marine water and coastline zones. There is a lack of deep ocean monitoring. Given the fluidity of the oceans’ waters, waves, tides and continued movement determining location, depth and appro­ priate time periods for measurement applicable to each relevant pollutant is a complex task. 3.67. The UNECE Standard Statistical Classification of Marine Water Quality (1992) lists the most important pollutants, parameters and statistics needed to assess marine water quality. There are many important marine environment and marine water quality statistics which a country may track. Examples include concentrations of bio-pollutants, heavy metals, persistent toxins and radioactive substances, as well as the area affected by coral bleaching. Producing statistics on the concentrations and effects of pollutants and waste in marine water bodies is of the greatest importance to both ecosystems and human health (see Annex D: Classifications and environment statistics).

Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES 2013) 44 Table 3.1.3.3 Statistics and related information for Topic 1.3.3 Component 1: Environmental Conditions and Quality Subcomponent 1.3: Environmental Quality Topic 1.3.3: Marine water quality Statistics and related information Category of measurement Potential aggregations and scales Methodological guidance (Bold text—Core Set/Tier 1; regular text—Tier 2; italicized text—Tier 3) a. Nutrients and chlorophyll •• By coastal zone, delta, estuary or other local marine environment •• Subnational •• National •• Supranational •• By point measurement •• By water resource •• UNECE Standard Statistical Classification of Marine Water Quality (1992) •• NOAA/NASA •• UNEP Regional Seas Programme  

  1. Concentration level of nitrogen Concentration  
  2. Concentration level of phosphorous Concentration  
  3. Concentration level of chlorophyll A Concentration b. Organic matter  
  4. Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) Concentration  
  5. Chemical oxygen demand (COD) Concentration c. Pathogens  
  6. Concentration levels of faecal coliforms in recreational marine waters Concentration d. Metals (e.g., mercury, lead, nickel, arsenic, cadmium)  
  7. Concentration levels in sediment and marine water Concentration  
  8. Concentration levels in marine organisms Concentration e. Organic contaminants (e.g., PCBs, DDT, pesticides, furans, dioxins, phenols, radioactive waste) •• UNECE Standard Statistical Classification of Marine Water Quality (1992) •• NOAA/NASA •• UNEP Regional Seas Programme •• Stockholm Convention  
  9. Concentration levels in sediment and marine water Concentration  
  10. Concentration levels in marine organisms Concentration f. Physical and chemical characteristics  •• UNECE Standard Statistical Classification of Marine Water Quality (1992) •• NOAA/NASA •• UNEP Regional Seas Programme  
  11. pH/acidity/alkalinity Level  
  12. Temperature Degrees  
  13. Total suspended solids (TSS) Concentration  
  14. Salinity Concentration  
  15. Dissolved oxygen (DO) Concentration  
  16. Density Density g. Coral bleaching  
  17. Area affected by coral bleaching Area h. Plastic waste and other marine debris •• By coastal zone, delta, estuary or other local marine environment •• By location •• Subnational •• National •• Supranational •• By point measurement •• UNECE Standard Statistical Classification of Marine Water Quality (1992) •• NOAA/NASA •• UNEP Regional Seas Programme  
  18. Amount of plastic waste and other debris in marine waters Area, mass i. Red tide  
  19. Occurrence Number  
  20. Impacted area Area  
  21. Duration Duration j. Oil pollution  
  22. Area of oil slicks Area  
  23. Amount of tar balls Area, diameter, number
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