Carrying the Fire, An Astronaut's Journeys, Michael Collins, 1974, pp. 218-243; On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini, NASA SP 4203, 1977, pp. 349-350; Summary of Gemini Extravehicular Activity, NASA SP 149, 1967; interview, David S. F. Portree with John Young, June 13, 1996.
July 21
Gemini 10 splashdown
September 12
Gemini 11 launch
September 13
1966 EVA 4
World EVA 6
U.S. EVA 5
Duration: 0:38 Spacecraft/mission: Gemini 11 Crew: Charles Conrad, Richard Gordon Spacewalker: Richard Gordon Purpose: Demonstrate ability to perform a complex EVA
Mission Pilot Richard Gordon and Command Pilot Charles Conrad docked their spacecraft with Agena 11 on September 12, setting the stage for Gordon's first EVA. During the 107-min spacewalk, Gordon would attach a 30-m (100-ft) tether stowed on Agena 11 to Gemini 11's nose for an artificial gravity experiment. Also, he would retrieve the S9 nuclear emulsion package from Gemini 11's adapter section, and test the "golden slipper" foot restraint, an HHMU, and a torqueless power tool. Poor planning ensured that Gordon's EVA started badly. As dictated in the mission plan, he commenced EVA preparations 4 hr before scheduled EVA start. These required only 50 min. Gordon tested oxygen flow from the suit life support system and became uncomfortably warm because the life support oxygen cooling system heat exchanger could not be used—it was designed for vacuum operation. Just before opening the hatch he worked up a sweat trying to attach a visor to his helmet. Later he said that "I was pretty tired and had a pretty high heart rate before I ever opened the hatch." He then attempted a leap to Agena 11, missing and swinging on his 30-ft umbilical to Gemini 11's adapter section. Using the umbilical, Conrad pulled him back to the hatch for another try. This time Gordon succeeded in grasping handrails on the Agena docking adapter added following Collins' difficulties. However, Gordon still needed both hands to secure the tether to Gemini 11. He straddled the spacecraft nose as he had in zero-g aircraft simulations, but in space the G4C suit's internal pressure forced his legs together, pushing him away from the nose. He secured the tether while holding onto the handrail with one hand. Gordon moved back to the cockpit area to rest and Conrad ordered him back inside. An hour later, the astronauts opened the hatch and jettisoned loose equipment. Gordon said later that "a little simple task that I had done many times in training to the tune of about 30 seconds lasted about 30 minutes." After the flight Gordon said, "Gene Cernan warned me about this... I knew it was going to be harder [than on the ground], but I had no idea of the magnitude." Neutral buoyancy simulation was not yet a mandatory EVA training tool, so Gordon spent little time underwater preparing for his EVA. Gordon's experience encouraged Apollo lunar surface EVA astronauts to practice more in their suits.
"Gemini XI Crew Face the Press, Give Details of Flawless Flight," Space News Roundup, NASA Manned Spacecraft Center, September 20, 1966, pp. 1-2; On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini, NASA SP 4203, 1977, pp. 356, 360-362; Summary of Gemini Extravehicular Activity, NASA SP 149, 1967; Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1966, NASA SP 4007. pp. 301; interview, David S. F. Portree with John Young, June 13, 1996.
September 14
1966 EVA 5
World EVA 7
U.S. EVA 6
Duration: 2:08 Spacecraft/mission: Gemini 11 Crew: Charles Conrad, Richard Gordon Spacewalker: Richard Gordon Purpose: SEVA to perform ultraviolet astronomical photography and Earth photography
Like Collins before him, Gordon had few problems during his SEVA. He opened the hatch just before orbital sunset, installed the S 13 ultraviolet astronomical camera, and took pictures of Orion and Antares. A short tether held him in the cabin, permitting him to use both hands. During the daylight pass Gordon performed "general photography," which included snapping pictures of Houston and Florida. During their pass over the Atlantic they had no photographic targets, so both astronauts fell asleep—a testimony to the relaxed pace of this EVA. The spacecraft again moved into darkness, and Gordon snapped more pictures of astronomical targets. Experiment S 13 closeout and hatch closure were uneventful.
Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1966, NASA SP 4007, pp. 290; On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini, NASA SP 4203, 1977, pp. 365-366; Summary of Gemini Extravehicular Activity, NASA SP 149. 1967.
September 15
Gemini 11 splashdown
November 11
Gemini 12 launch
November 12
1966 EVA 6
World EVA 8
U.S. EVA 7
Duration: 2:18 Spacecraft/mission: Gemini 12 Crew: James Lovell, Edwin Aldrin Spacewalker: Edwin Aldrin Purpose: SEVA to familiarize Mission Pilot with EVA environment; conduct ultraviolet astronomical photography and Earth photography
EVA was a primary objective of Project Gemini; EVA requirements helped dictate that Gemini be a two-person spacecraft, and early plans had EVAs on every flight save the first. Therefore, it was with desperation that NASA reached the final flight of the Gemini program without a single complex EVA it could call an unqualified success. Great care was taken in training, planning, and providing handholds. Twelve mobility aids were added to the mission following Gordon's Gemini 11 difficulties, eight of which had not flown before in space. One new feature of the Gemini 12 mission plan was a relaxed SEVA designed to let Mission Pilot Edwin Aldrin become accustomed to his suit and equipment prior to the more demanding full-emergence EVA. Aldrin emerged in orbital daylight with an enthusiastic "Man, look at that!" and installed the S 13 ultraviolet astronomical camera. He evaluated standup EVA dynamics until after dark, then performed astronomical photography. Shortly after the Gemini 12-Agena 12 combination flashed orange in the brief orbital dawn, Aldrin installed a camera to record his activities, then prepared for the next EVA by installing a handbar and unfolding a handrail. He changed a diffraction grating on the S13 camera and removed the S12 micrometeoroid package from behind the cockpit. Command Pilot James Lovell assisted Aldrin in his tasks. Just before orbital sunset he retrieved the EVA camera. Aldrin resumed astronomical photography as darkness fell again. He witnessed a second orbital sunrise before closing the hatch on his successful first EVA.
Summary of Gemini Extravehicular Activity, NASA SP 149, 1967; On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini, NASA SP 4203, 1977, pp. 377-378; interview, David S. F. Portree with John Young, June 13, 1996.
November 13
1966 EVA 7
World EVA 9
U.S. EVA 8
Duration: 2:09 Spacecraft/mission: Gemini 12 Crew: James Lovell, Edwin Aldrin Spacewalker: Edwin Aldrin Purpose: Demonstrate ability to perform complex EVA
Before flight Aldrin conducted five neutral buoyancy training sessions (not a large number by modern standards) in preparation for this EVA, in addition to the usual zero-g aircraft training. Aldrin also became accustomed to the relative immobility of the pressurized G4C suit in Thermal Vacuum Chamber B at NASA MSC. "Thermal vac" testing subsequently became a critical part of EVA training. To start this EVA, Aldrin moved to the Target Docking Adapter on Agena 12, where he used waist tethers to hold position. Attaching a tether on the Agena to Gemini 12 proved surprisingly easy with both hands free. He then moved back to the adapter section, where he slipped his feet into "golden slipper" foot restraints. He used waist tethers to position himself at a work station for testing representative tasks—he cut cables and fluid lines, fastened rings and hooks, connected and disconnected electrical and fluid connectors, tightened bolts, and stripped velcro. Aldrin's physical condition was closely monitored so that he could be advised to rest before fatigue developed. He moved to a similar work station on the Agena docking adapter where he tested an Apollo torque wrench with and without tethers. He wiped Lovell's window and observed thruster firings on Gemini 12, then closed the hatch on the world's first successful complex EVA.
Summary of Gemini Extravehicular Activity, NASA SP 149, 1967; On the Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini, NASA SP 4203, 1977, pp. 378.
November 14
1966 EVA 8
World EVA 10
U.S. EVA 9
Duration: 1:11 Spacecraft/mission: Gemini 12 Crew: James Lovell, Edwin Aldrin Spacewalker: Edwin Aldrin Purpose: SEVA to discard refuse; conduct ultraviolet astronomical photography
Aldrin's last Gemini 12 EVA—and the final EVA of the Gemini program—was anticlimactic, but helped confirm that U.S. EVA planners were on a sure footing going into the Apollo program. Aldrin jettisoned disused equipment just before orbital sunset, then performed ultraviolet photography. He photographed sunrise then stowed his gear and closed out the EVA. The Summary of Gemini Extravehicular Activity states that the Gemini 12 EVAs showed that all the tasks attempted were feasible when body restraints were used to maintain position. The results also showed that EVA workload could be controlled within desired limits by application of proper procedures... Finally, perhaps the most significant result was that underwater simulation duplicated the actual extravehicular actions and reactions with a high degree of fidelity. It was concluded that any task which could be accomplished readily in underwater simulation would have a high probability of success during the actual EVA.
Summary of Gemini Extravehicular Activity, NASA SP 149, 1967, pp. 3-26.
1969
January 16
1969 EVA 1
World EVA 11
Russian EVA 2
Duration: 0:37 Soyuz 4 crew: Vladimir Shatalov, Yevgeni Khrunov, Alexei Yeliseyev (launch to EVA) Soyuz 5 crew: Boris Volynov, Yevgeni Khrunov, Alexei Yeliseyev (EVA to landing) Spacewalkers: Yevgeni Khrunov, Alexei Yeliseyev Purpose: Demonstrate EVA transfer between two spacecraft
This docking mission had EVA objectives similar to those planned for Apollo 9. Soyuz 4 launched first, and was the active vehicle in the docking with Soyuz 5. The news agency TASS stated that: "... there was a mutual mechanical coupling of the ships... and their electrical circuits were connected. Thus, the world's first experimental cosmic station with four compartments for the crew was assembled and began functioning..." The mission rehearsed elements of the Soviet piloted lunar mission plan. Moscow TV carried the cosmonauts' EVA preparations live. Khrunov and Yeliseyev put on their Yastreb ("hawk") suits in the Soyuz 5 orbital module with aid from Commander Boris Volynov. Yastreb suit design commenced in 1965, shortly after Leonov's difficult EVA. Leonov served as consultant for the design process, which was complete during 1966. Suit fabrication and testing occurred in 1967, but the Soyuz 1 accident in April of that year and Soyuz docking difficulties (Soyuz 2-Soyuz 3, October 1968) delayed use in space until Soyuz 4-Soyuz 5. To prevent the suit ballooning which contributed to Leonov's EVA difficulties, Yastreb used a pulley and cable articulation system. Wide metal rings around the gray nylon canvas undersuit's upper arms served as "anchors" for the upper body articulation system. Yastreb had a regenerative life support system in a rectangular white metal box placed on the chest and abdomen to facilitate movement through Soyuz hatchways. Volynov checked out Khrunov and Yeliseyev's life support and communications systems before returning to the descent module, sealing the hatch, and depressurizing the orbital module. Khrunov went out first, transferring to the Soyuz 4 orbital module while the docked spacecraft were out of radio contact with the Soviet Union over South America. Yeliseyev transferred while the spacecraft were over the Soviet Union. They closed the Soyuz 4 orbital module hatch behind them, then Soyuz 4 Commander Vladimir Shatalov repressurized the orbital module and entered to help Khrunov and Yeliseyev get out of their suits. The spacewalkers delivered newspapers, letters, and telegrams printed after Shatalov lifted off to help prove that the transfer took place. Soyuz 4 and 5 separated after only 4 hr, 35 min together.
Astronautics and Aeronautics, 1969, NASA SP 4014, 1970, p. 12; "Soyuz Spurs Orbiting Space Station Plans," Donald Winston, Aviation Week & Space Technology, January 27, 1969, p. 19; Russian Space History, Sotheby's Auction Catalog for March 16, 1996 sale of Yastreb undersuit and life support pack, Yastreb blueprints, GTF-2 helmet, and other artifacts, #126-128; Handbook of Soviet Manned Space Flight, Nicholas Johnson, Vol. 48, Science and Technology Series, 1980, pp. 151-158.