Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES 2013) 18 comparability and statistical soundness. Another relevant function is to preserve continuity over time, despite significant turnover of staff in the partner institutions. 1.64. If tasked with overseeing the national statistical system and coordinating these platforms, the NSO must have adequate authority, resources or capacities to lead the multi- stakeholder processes. Depending on the institutional arrangement, the environmental ministry or equivalent institution in many developing countries coordinates such platforms. 1.65. Institutional cooperation among national, regional and global bodies. International organizations that produce environmental data and statistics also face the same institutional challenges as countries. Notwithstanding the legal requirements mentioned above, it is very important to consider the operational aspects that can improve coordination and resource uti lization among the national, regional and global levels, with the understanding that all poten tial partners have different mandates, work programmes and deadlines. In addition, report ing requirements for certain international agreements and treaties, which are an important dimension of environment statistics, should be included in national environment statistics programmes. 1.11. The FDES 2013 and the domain of environment statistics 1.66. The FDES 2013 addresses the issues related to the multidisciplinary nature of environ ment statistics by marking out the scope of environment statistics and providing a conceptu ally based organizing structure that brings together the necessary biophysical data originating from various sources, as well as the relevant social and economic statistics needed to describe the activities affecting environmental conditions and to estimate their environmental impact. 1.67. The sections of this chapter have discussed the nature, scope and specific characteristics pertaining to the domain of environment statistics. The most relevant challenges to the work in the field of environment statistics have also been presented in synthesized form. The FDES 2013 has been developed to address these specific elements from a current and global perspec tive, while also acknowledging foreseeable developments. 1.68. The next chapter of this document describes the conceptual foundation, scope and organizing structure found in the FDES 2013. Subsequent chapters describe the components, subcomponents and topics of the FDES 2013, as well as its most relevant environment statistics. These chapters also indicate the corresponding availability of methodologies and classifica tions and the most common sources of data, and identify the typical institutional partners to facilitate inter-agency cooperation.
19 Chapter 2 Conceptual Foundation and Structure of the FDES 2.1. This chapter introduces the FDES, its conceptual framework and the main concepts that have been considered when designing its scope and structure. It ties the conceptual foun dation to the main structural components of the FDES, which are further discussed in detail in Chapter 3. It also explains the relationship between the FDES and other commonly used systems and frameworks. 2.1. What is the FDES? 2.2. The FDES is a flexible, multipurpose conceptual and statistical framework that is com prehensive and integrative in nature and marks out the scope of environment statistics. It provides an organizing structure to guide the collection and compilation of environment sta tistics at the national level. It brings together data from the various relevant subject areas and sources, covering the issues and aspects of the environment that are relevant for policy analysis and decision-making. 2.3. The primary objective of the FDES is to guide the formulation of environment statistics programmes by (i) delineating the scope of environment statistics and identifying its constitu ents; (ii) contributing to the assessment of data requirements, sources, availability and gaps; (iii) guiding the development of multipurpose data collection processes and databases; and (iv) assisting in the coordination and organization of environment statistics, given the inter- institutional nature of the domain. 2.4. Though the FDES has been designed to guide countries at early stages in the develop ment of their environment statistics programmes, it is relevant to, and recommended for use by, countries at any stage of development. It can also be used by international and regional institutions, as well as by other users and producers. Figure 2.1 The environment, the human subsystem, and interactions between them Human subsystem Environment Processes within the environment Processes within the human subsystem Interactions between the environ ment and the human subsystem
Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES 2013)
20
2.2. Conceptual foundation of the FDES
2.5.
The FDES is based on a conceptual foundation that considers people and their demo
graphic, social and economic activities (the human subsystem) as integral parts of, and inter
acting with, the environment. Figure 2.1 illustrates this concept with the arrows representing
a variety of complex natural, demographic, social and economic processes and interactions
within and between the environment and the human subsystem.
2.6.
Human well-being depends upon the living and non-living elements of the environ
ment and the goods and services they provide. Humans need the environment in order to
survive and for various social, cultural and economic purposes. The human subsystem uses the
environment for habitat, to obtain important physical resources and as a recipient or sink for
various residuals. Human societies and their production and consumption patterns affect the
environment that supports them and other life forms in general. The changing environment
affects humans in various ways over time (see Figure 2.2).
Figure 2.2
Environmental conditions and their changes
2.7.
Escalating human impacts on environmental systems worldwide have raised concerns
about the consequences of environmental changes for the sustainability of human societies and
for human well-being. Conditions in the living and non-living environment, natural processes
and the capacity of ecosystems to provide goods and services all change as a result of human
activities. The interconnectivity between the systems means that changes in one part of the
system can influence changes in other parts.
Ecosystems and ecosystem services
2.8.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD) define an ecosystem as “a dynamic complex of plant, animal and microorganism com
munities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit.” 17, 18 Ecosystems
are systems of interacting and interdependent relationships among their elements. They per
form specific functions such as photosynthesis, biochemical cycling, including the cycling of
energy, water, carbon and nutrients, and the cleansing of air and water.
17 Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (2005). Ecosystems
and Human Well-being: Synthesis,
Washington, D.C., Island Press,
available from www
.millenniumassessment.org
/documents/document.356.aspx
.pdf (accessed 4 August 2017).
18 Convention on Biological
Diversity (1992). “Article 2. Use of
Terms”, available from
www.cbd.int/convention
/articles/default.shtml?a=cbd-02
(accessed 4 August 2017).
Environmental
conditions t0
Natural processes
Changes
over time
Human
activities
Impacts from
the changing
environment
Human
subsystem
Environmental
conditions t1
21
Conceptual Foundation and Structure of the FDES
21
2.9.
Ecosystems provide a great variety of goods and services upon which people depend.19
These are commonly known as ecosystem services. Ecosystem services are the benefits supplied
by the functions of ecosystems and received by humanity.20 Ecosystem services are generated
by biophysical, geochemical and other physical processes and interactions within and between
ecosystems. The capacity of ecosystems to provide these services depends on their extent and
conditions. The extent and conditions of ecosystems change as a result of both natural pro
cesses and human activities.
2.10.
There is no internationally adopted standard classification of ecosystem services. Four
main types of ecosystem services have been commonly distinguished:21
i. Provisioning services that provide goods and services which humans require to
meet basic necessities like food and raw materials;
ii. Regulating services that keep the planet habitable like the regulation of climate and
hydrological systems;
iii. Supporting services that arise from the continuous cycling of energy and materials
necessary to support all living things like photosynthesis and nutrient cycling; and
iv. Cultural services that provide well-being to humans like scenic views, natural
monuments and wildlife.
2.11.
In the SEEA Experimental Ecosystem Accounting, ecosystem services constitute the
contributions of ecosystems to benefits used in economic and other human activity.22 As shown
in Figures 2.1 and 2.2, this definition excludes certain flows that are considered ecosystem
services in other contexts, particularly intra- and inter- ecosystem flows that relate to ongoing
ecosystem processes, commonly referred to as supporting services. While these flows are not
considered ecosystem services in the SEEA, they are considered as part of the measurement
of ecosystem assets. A Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES)
is emerging within the context of the ongoing work on the SEEA Experimental Ecosystem
Accounting. For accounting purposes, the draft CICES distinguishes three main types of eco
system services, namely provisioning, regulating and cultural services. The CICES lists those
ecosystem services where a direct connection to humans can be established. Supporting ser
vices are thus considered to be embodied in the provisioning, regulating and cultural services
that they underpin.23
2.12.
People also use many abiotic materials and flows found in the environment, such
as underground mineral and energy resources or the capture of energy from solar or wind
sources. These are goods and services provided by the environment but they are not considered
ecosystem services because they do not result from interactions within ecosystems. However,
the extraction, capture and use of these abiotic goods and services significantly affect the extent
and conditions of ecosystems.
2.3. Scope of the FDES
2.13.
The scope of the FDES covers biophysical aspects of the environment, those aspects of
the human subsystem that directly influence the state and quality of the environment, and the
impacts of the changing environment on the human subsystem. It includes interactions within
and among the environment, human activities and natural events.
2.14.
The environment is the biophysical, biotic and abiotic surroundings in which humans
live. Changes in the conditions and quality of the environment are central to the FDES. These
changes show the balance of the negative and positive impacts of human activities and natural
processes. In many cases, it is not possible to establish direct cause-effect relationships between
19 Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (2005). Ecosystems
and Human Well-being:
Synthesis, Washington, D.C.,
Island Press, available from www
.millenniumassessment.org
/documents/document.356.aspx
.pdf (accessed 4 August 2017).
20 United Nations, European
Union, Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United
Nations, International Monetary
Fund, Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development,
and the World Bank (2014).
System of Environmental-
Economic Accounting 2012—
Central Framework, available
from http://unstats.un.org
/unsd/envaccounting/seeaRev
/SEEA_CF_Final_en.pdf
(accessed 4 August 2017).
21 Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (2005). Ecosystems
and Human Well-being: Synthesis,
Washington, D.C., Island Press,
available from www
.millenniumassessment.org
/documents/document.356.aspx
.pdf (accessed 4 August 2017).
22 In this context “use” includes
both the transformation of
materials (for example, the use
of timber to build houses or for
energy) and the passive receipt
of non-material ecosystem
services (for example, the
amenity that viewing landscapes
offers).
23 European Commission,
Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development,
United Nations and World Bank
(2014). System of Environmental-
Economic Accounting 2012:
Experimental Ecosystem
Accounting”, available from
http://unstats.un.org/unsd
/envaccounting/seeaRev
/eea_final_en.pdf (accessed
4 August 2017).
Framework for the Development of Environment Statistics (FDES 2013) 22 changes in environmental quality and individual human activities or natural processes because the impact results from combined and cumulative processes and effects over space and time. Certain environmental conditions are not affected significantly by human activities and natu ral processes or change very slowly, while others show more immediate change. 2.15. The elements of the environment that are affected by human use are ecosystems, land and subsoil resources. Ecosystems offer provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural ser vices that are essential for life and human well-being. Healthy ecosystems have the capacity to provide a continunous flow of ecosystem goods and services. Depending on the relationship between the scale and persistence of human use of the environment and the carrying capac ity and resilience of ecosystems, human activities can exert pressure on and cause significant change in the quality and integrity of ecosystems, affecting their capacity to continue to provide services. 2.16. Land provides space for natural ecosystems, human habitats and human activities. As this space is finite, the expansion of human activities can reduce the space occupied by natural ecosystems, thus reducing ecosystems’ capacity to yield ecosystem goods and services for all living beings. 2.17. Subsoil resources are underground deposits of various minerals that provide raw materi als and energy sources for humans. When considered as resources for human use, these subsoil elements differ fundamentally from ecosystems in that they are non-renewable. Their use thus results in permanent depletion. 2.18. The factors affecting the conditions and quality of the environment may be both natural and anthropogenic. 2.19. Natural processes help to sustain ecosystem functioning and the generation of renew able resources, but they are also responsible for normal or extreme natural losses. On a human timescale, these natural processes do not affect non-renewable resources except in the form of natural disasters. 2.20. Human activities that directly affect the environment are related to the use of non- renewable and renewable resources, land use and the discharge of residuals to the environ ment from production and consumption processes. These activities often lead to environmental changes in the form of resource depletion and environmental degradation, which in turn have a negative impact on human well-being. On the other hand, human activities aimed at pro tecting the environment and managing its resources can reduce such negative impacts on the environment. 2.21. People and many of their activities with a direct impact on the environment are concen trated within and around human settlements. Human settlements also constitute the immedi ate environment where the population is directly exposed to environmental effects. Human settlements represent a special category in the measurement of environmental conditions and quality, and their impacts on human health and well-being. 2.22. Environmental protection and the management of environmental resources may be advocated, facilitated, supported or mandated by different policies, economic measures, instru ments and actions. These policies, instruments and actions are aimed at mitigating environ mentally harmful effects, managing environmental resources and restoring the environment’s state and quality so that it can continue to provide sustainable support for life and human activities.