agenda-21.pdf

assistance in the preparation of comprehensive inventories and reviews of national legal systems. Past experience has demonstrated the usefulness of combining specialized legal informati on services with legal expert advice. Within the United Nations system, closer cooperation among all agencies concerned would avoid duplication of databases and facilitate division of labour. These agencies could examine the possibility and merit of perfor ming reviews of selected national legal systems.

(d) Establishing a cooperative training network for sustainable development law

8.20. Competent international and academic institutions could, within agreed frameworks, cooperate to provide, especially for tra inees from developing countries, postgraduate programmes and in -service training facilities in environment and development law. Such training should address both the effective application and the progressive improvement of applicable laws, the related skil ls of negotiating, drafting and mediation, and the training of trainers. Intergovernmental and non -governmental organizations already active in this field could cooperate with related university programmes to harmonize curriculum planning and to offer an o ptimal range of options to interested Governments and potential sponsors.

(e) Developing effective national programmes for reviewing and enforcing compliance with national, state, provincial and local laws on environment and development

8.21. Each country sh ould develop integrated strategies to maximize compliance with its laws and regulations relating to sustainable development, with assistance from international organizations and other countries as appropriate. The strategies could include:
a. Enforceable, eff ective laws, regulations and standards that are based on sound economic, social and environmental principles and appropriate risk assessment, incorporating sanctions designed to punish violations, obtain redress and deter future violations;
b. Mechanisms for promoting compliance;
c. Institutional capacity for collecting compliance data, regularly reviewing compliance, detecting violations, establishing enforcement priorities, undertaking effective enforcement, and conducting periodic evaluations of the effectiv eness of compliance and enforcement programmes;
d. Mechanisms for appropriate involvement of individuals and groups in the development and enforcement of laws and regulations on environment and development.
e. National monitoring of legal follow -up to internat ional instruments
8.22. Contracting parties to international agreements, in consultation with the appropriate secretariats of relevant international conventions as appropriate, should improve practices and procedures for collecting information on legal and regu latory measures taken. Contracting parties to international agreements could undertake sample surveys of domestic follow -up action subject to agreement by the sovereign States concerned.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation
8.23. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993 -2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $6 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order -of-magnitud e estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means
8.24. The programme relies essentially on a continuation of ongoing work for legal data collection, translation and assessment. Closer cooperation between existing databases may be expected to lead to better division of labour (e .g., in geographical coverage of national legislative gazettes and other reference sources) and to improved standardization and compatibility of data, as appropriate.
(c) Human resource development
8.25. Participation in training is expected to benefit practit ioners from developing countries and to enhance training opportunities for women. Demand for this type of postgraduate and in -service training is known to be high. The seminars, workshops and conferences on review and enforcement that have been held to dat e have been very successful and well attended. The purpose of these efforts is to develop resources (both human and institutional) to design and implement effective programmes to continuously review and enforce national and local laws, regulations and stan dards on sustainable development.
(d) Strengthening legal and institutional capacity
8.26. A major part of the programme should be oriented towards improving the legal -institutional capacities of countries to cope with national problems of governance and effec tive law-making and law-applying in the field of environment and sustainable development. Regional centres of excellence could be designated and supported to build up specialized databases and training facilities for linguistic/cultural groups of legal sys tems.
C. Making effective use of economic instruments and market and other incentives
Basis for action
8.27. Environmental law and regulation are important but cannot alone be expected to deal with the problems of environment and development. Prices, markets a nd governmental fiscal and economic policies also play a complementary role in shaping attitudes and behaviour towards the environment.

8.28. During the past several years, many Governments, primarily in industrialized countries but also in Central and Eastern Europe and in developing countries, have been making increasing use of economic approaches, including those that are market -oriented. Examples include the polluter -pays principle and the more recent natural -resource-user-pays concept.

8.29. Within a supportiv e international and national economic context and given the necessary legal and regulatory framework, economic and market -oriented approaches can in many cases enhance capacity to deal with the issues of environment and development. This would be achieved by providing cost - effective solutions, applying integrated pollution prevention control, promoting technological innovation and influencing environmental behaviour, as well as providing financial resources to meet sustainable development objectives.

8.30. What is needed is an appropriate effort to explore and make more effective and widespread use of economic and market -oriented approaches within a broad framework of development policies, law and regulation suited to country -specific conditions as part of a gen eral transition to economic and environmental policies that are supportive and mutually reinforcing.
Objectives
8.31. Recognizing that countries will develop their own priorities in accordance with their needs and national plans, policies and programmes, the challenge is to achieve significant progress in the years ahead in meeting three fundamental objectives:
a. To incorporate environmental costs in the decisions of producers and consumers, to reverse the tendency to treat the environment as a "free good" and to pass these costs on to other parts of society, other countries, or to future generations;
b. To move more fully towards integration of social and environmental costs into economic activities, so that prices will appropriately reflect the relative scarcity and total value of resources and contribute towards the prevention of environmental degradation;
c. To include, wherever appropriate, the use of market principles in the framing of economic instruments and policies to pursue sustainable development.
Activities
(a) Improving or reorienting governmental policies
8.32. In the near term, Governments should consider gradually building on experience with economic instruments and market mechanisms by undertaking to reorient their policies, keeping in mind national plans, priorities and objectives, in order to:
a. Establish effective combinations of economic, regulatory and voluntary (self-regulatory) approaches;
b. Remove or reduce those subsidies that do not conform with sustainable development objectives;
c. Reform or recast existing structures of economic and fiscal incentives to meet environment and development objectives;
d. Establish a policy framework that encourages the creation of new markets in pollution control and environmentally sounder resource management;
e. Move towards pricing consistent with sustainable development objectives.
8.33. In particular, Governments should explore, in cooperation with business and industry, as appropriate, how effective use can be made of economic instruments and market mechanisms in the following areas:
a. Issues related to energy, transportation, agriculture and forestry, water, wastes, health, tourism and tertiary services;
b. Global and transboundary issues;
c. The development and introduction of environmentally sound technology and its adaptation, diffusion and transfer to developing countries in conformity with chapter 34.
(b) Taking account of the particular circumstances of developing countries and countries with economies in transition
8.34. A special effort should be made to develop applications of the use of economic instruments and market mechanisms geared to the particular needs of developing countries and countries with economies in transition, with the assistance of regional and international economic and environmental organizations and, as appropriate, non-governmental research institutes, by:
a. Providing technical support to those countries on issues relating to the application of economic instruments and market mechanisms;

b. Encouraging regional seminars and, possibly, the development of regional centres of expertise.
(c) Creating an inventory of effective uses of economic instruments and market mechanisms
8.35. Given the recognition that the use of economic instruments and market mechanisms is relatively recent, exchange of information about different countries' experiences with such approaches should be actively encouraged. In this regard, Governments should encourage the use of existing means of information exchange to look at effective uses of economic instruments.
(d) Increasing understanding of the role of economic instruments and market mechanisms
8.36. Governments should encourage research and analysis on effective uses of economic instruments and incentives with the assistance and support of regional and international economic and environmental organizations, as well as non-governmental research institutes, with a focus on such key issues as:
a. The role of environmental taxation suited to national conditions;
b. The implications of economic instruments and incentives for competitiveness and international trade, and potential needs for appropriate future international cooperation and coordination;
c. The possible social and distributive implications of using various instruments.
(e) Establishing a process for focusing on pricing
8.37. The theoretical advantages of using pricing policies, where appropriate, need to be better understood, and accompanied by greater understanding of what it means to take significant steps in this direction. Processes should therefore be initiated, in cooperation with business, industry, large enterprises, transnational corporations, as well as other social groups, as appropriate, at both the national and international levels, to examine:
a. The practical implications of moving towards greater reliance on pricing that internalize environmental costs appropriate to help achieve sustainable development objectives;
b. The implications for resource pricing in the case of resource-exporting countries, including the implications of such pricing policies for developing countries;
c. The methodologies used in valuing environmental costs.
(f) Enhancing understanding of sustainable development economics
8.38. Increased interest in economic instruments, including market mechanisms, also requires a concerted effort to improve understanding of sustainable development economics by:
a. Encouraging institutions of higher learning to review their curricula and strengthen studies in sustainable development economics;
b. Encouraging regional and international economic organizations and non-governmental research institutes with expertise in this area to provide training sessions and seminars for government officials; c. Encouraging business and industry, including large industrial enterprises and transnational corporations with expertise in environmental matters, to organize training programmes for the private sector and other groups.

Means of implementation

8.39. This programme involves adjustments or reorientation of policies on the part of Governments. It also involves international and regional economic and environmen tal organizations and agencies with expertise in this area, including transnational corporations.
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
8.40. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993 -2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $5 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order -of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
D. Establishing systems for integrated environmental and economic accounting
Basis for action
8.41. A first step towards the in tegration of sustainability into economic management is the establishment of better measurement of the crucial role of the environment as a source of natural capital and as a sink for by -products generated during the production of man -made capital and othe r human activities. As sustainable development encompasses social, economic and environmental dimensions, it is also important that national accounting procedures are not restricted to measuring the production of goods and services that are conventionally remunerated. A common framework needs to be developed whereby the contributions made by all sectors and activities of society, that are not included in the conventional national accounts, are included, to the extent consistent with sound theory and practicability, in satellite accounts. A programme to develop national systems of integrated environmental and economic accounting in all countries is proposed.
Objectives
8.42. The main objective is to expand existing systems of national economic accounts in order t o integrate environment and social dimensions in the accounting framework, including at least satellite systems of accounts for natural resources in all member States. The resulting systems of integrated environmental and economic accounting (IEEA) to be e stablished in all member States at the earliest date should be seen as a complement to, rather than a substitute for, traditional national accounting practices for the foreseeable future. IEEAs would be designed to play an integral part in the national development decision -making process. National accounting agencies should work in close collaboration with national environmental statistics as well as the geographic and natural resource departments. The definition of economically active could be expanded to include people performing productive but unpaid tasks in all countries. This would enable their contribution to be adequately measured and taken into account in decision -making.
Activities
(a) Strengthening international cooperation
8.43. The Statistical Offi ce of the United Nations Secretariat should:
a. Make available to all member States the methodologies contained in the SNA Handbook on Integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting;
b. In collaboration with other relevant United Nations organizations, furthe r develop, test, refine and then standardize the provisional concepts and methods such as those proposed by the SNA Handbook, keeping member States informed of the status of the work throughout this process;
c. Coordinate, in close cooperation with other int ernational organizations, the training of national accountants, environmental statisticians and national technical staff in small groups for the establishment, adaptation and development of national IEEAs.
8.44. The Department of Economic and Social Development of the United Nations Secretariat, in close collaboration with other relevant United Nations organizations, should:
a. Support, in all member States, the utilization of sustainable development indicators in national economic and social planning and decision -making practices, with a view to ensuring that IEEAs are usefully integrated in economic development planning at the national level;
b. Promote improved environmental and economic and social data collection.
(b) Strengthening national accounting systems
8.45. At the national level, the programme could be adopted mainly by the agencies dealing with national accounts, in close cooperation with environmental statistics and natural resource departments, with a view to assisting national economic analysts and decisio n makers in charge of national economic planning. National institutions should play a crucial role not only as the depositary of the system but also in its adaptation, establishment and continuous use. Unpaid productive work such as domestic work and child care should be included, where appropriate, in satellite national accounts and economic statistics. Time -use surveys could be a first step in the process of developing these satellite accounts.
(c) Establishing an assessment process
8.46. At the international level, the Statistical Commission should assemble and review experience and advise member States on technical and methodological issues related to the further development and implementation of IEEAs in member States.

8.47. Governments should seek to identify and consider measures to correct price distortions arising from environmental programmes affecting land, water, energy and other natural resources.

8.48. Governments should encourage corporations:
a. To provide relevant environmental information through transpar ent reporting to shareholders, creditors, employees, governmental authorities, consumers and the public;
b. To develop and implement methods and rules for accounting for sustaining development.
(d) Strengthening data and information collection
8.49. National Governments could consider implementing the necessary enhancement in data collection to set in place national IEEAs with a view to contributing pragmatically to sound economic management. Major efforts should be made to augment the capacity to collect and ana lyse environmental data and information and to integrate it with economic data, including gender disaggregated data. Efforts should also be made to develop physical environmental accounts. International donor agencies should consider financing the developm ent of intersectoral data banks to help ensure that national planning for sustainable development is based on precise, reliable and effective information and is suited to national conditions.
(e) Strengthening technical cooperation
8.50. The Statistical Office of the United Nations Secretariat, in close collaboration with relevant United Nations organizations, should strengthen existing mechanisms for technical cooperation among countries. This should also include exchange of experience in the establishment of IEEAs, particularly in connection with the valuation of non -marketed natural resources and standardization in data collection. The cooperation of business and industry, including large industrial enterprises and transnational corporations with experience i n valuation of such resources, should also be sought.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
8.51. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993 -2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be abo ut $2 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order -of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Strengthening institutions
8.52. To ensure the application of IEEAs:
a. National institutions in developing countries could be strengthened to en sure the effective integration of environment and development at the planning and decision -making levels;
b. The Statistical Office should provide the necessary technical support to member States, in close collaboration with the assessment process to be esta blished by the Statistical Commission; the Statistical Office should provide appropriate support for establishing IEEAs, in collaboration with relevant United Nations agencies.
(c) Enhancing the use of information technology
8.53. Guidelines and mechanisms cou ld be developed and agreed upon for the adaptation and diffusion of information technologies to developing countries. State -of-the-art data management technologies should be adopted for the most efficient and widespread use of IEEAs.
(d) Strengthening nat ional capacity
8.54. Governments, with the support of the international community, should strengthen national institutional capacity to collect, store, organize, assess and use data in decision -making. Training in all areas related to the establishment of IEEAs , and at all levels, will be required, especially in developing countries. This should include technical training of those involved in economic and environmental analysis, data collection and national accounting, as well as training decision makers to use such information in a pragmatic and appropriate way.

Agenda 21 – Chapter 9 PROTECTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE INTRODUCTION

9.1. Protection of the atmosphere is a broad and multidimensional endeavour involving various sectors of economic activity. The options an d measures described in the present chapter are recommended for consideration and, as appropriate, implementation by Governments and other bodies in their efforts to protect the atmosphere.

9.2. It is recognized that many of the issues discussed in this chapt er are also addressed in such international agreements as the 1985 Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer, the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer as amended, the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Cl imate Change and other international, including regional, instruments. In the case of activities covered by such agreements, it is understood that the recommendations contained in this chapter do not oblige any Government to take measures which exceed the provisions of these legal instruments. However, within the framework of this chapter, Governments are free to carry out additional measures which are consistent with those legal instruments.

9.3. It is also recognized that activities that may be undertaken in pursuit of the objectives of this chapter should be coordinated with social and economic development in an integrated manner with a view to avoiding adverse impacts on the latter, taking into full account the legitimate priority needs of developing countr ies for the achievement of sustained economic growth and the eradication of poverty.

9.4. In this context particular reference is also made to programme area A of chapter 2 of Agenda 21 (Promoting sustainable development through trade).

9.5. The present chapter includes the following four programme areas:
a. Addressing the uncertainties: improving the scientific basis for decision -making;
b. Promoting sustainable development:
i. Energy development, efficiency and consumption;
ii. Transportation;
iii. Industrial development;
iv. Terrestrial and marine resource development and land use;
c. Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion;
d. Transboundary atmospheric pollution.

PROGRAMME AREAS

A. Addressing the uncertainties: improving the scientific basis for decision -making

Basis for action

9.6. Concern about climate change and climate variability, air pollution and ozone depletion has created new demands for scientific, economic and social information to reduce the remaining uncertainties in these fields. Better understanding and predicti on of the various properties of the atmosphere and of the affected ecosystems, as well as health impacts and their interactions with socio -economic factors, are needed.

Objectives

9.7. The basic objective of this programme area is to improve the understand ing of processes that influence and are influenced by the Earth's atmosphere on a global, regional and local scale, including, inter alia, physical, chemical, geological, biological, oceanic, hydrological, economic and social processes; to build capacity a nd enhance international cooperation; and to improve understanding of the economic and social consequences of atmospheric changes and of mitigation and response measures addressing such changes.

Activities

9.8. Governments at the appropriate level, with th e cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and non -governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
a. Promote research related to the natural processes affecting and being affected by the atmosphere, as well as the critical linkages between sustainable development and atmospheric changes, including impacts on human health, ecosystems, economic sectors and society;
b. Ensure a more balanced geographical coverage of the Global Climate Observing System an d its components, including the Global Atmosphere Watch, by facilitating, inter alia, the establishment and operation of additional systematic observation stations, and by contributing to the development, utilization and accessibility of these databases;
c. Promote cooperation in:
i. The development of early detection systems concerning changes and fluctuations in the atmosphere;
ii. The establishment and improvement of capabilities to predict such changes and fluctuations and to assess the resulting environmental and socio-economic impacts;
d. Cooperate in research to develop methodologies and identify threshold levels of atmospheric pollutants, as well as atmospheric levels of greenhouse gas concentrations, that would cause dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system and the environment as a whole, and the associated rates of change that would not allow ecosystems to adapt naturally;
e. Promote, and cooperate in the building of scientific capacities, the exchange of scientific data and information, an d the facilitation of the participation and training of experts and technical staff, particularly of developing countries, in the fields of research, data assembly, collection and assessment, and systematic observation related to the atmosphere.

B. Promoting sustainable development

1. Energy development, efficiency and consumption
   Basis for action

9.9. Energy is essential to economic and social development and improved quality of life. Much of the world's energy, however, is currently produced and consume d in ways that could not be sustained if technology were to remain constant and if overall quantities were to increase substantially. The need to control atmospheric emissions of greenhouse and other gases and substances will increasingly need to be based on efficiency in energy production, transmission, distribution and consumption, and on growing reliance on environmentally sound energy systems, particularly new and renewable sources of energy. 1/ All energy sources will need to be used in ways that respe ct the atmosphere, human health and the environment as a whole.

9.10. The existing constraints to increasing the environmentally sound energy supplies required for pursuing the path towards sustainable development, particularly in developing countries, need to be removed.

Objectives

9.11. The basic and ultimate objective of this programme area is to reduce adverse effects on the atmosphere from the energy sector by promoting policies or programmes, as appropriate, to increase the contribution of environmentally sound and cost -effective energy systems, particularly new and renewable ones, through less polluting and more efficient energy production, transmission, distribution and use. This objective should reflect the need for equity, adequate energy supplies and i ncreasing energy consumption in developing countries, and should take into consideration the situations of countries that are highly dependent on income generated from the production, processing and export, and/or consumption of fossil fuels and associated energy-intensive products and/or the use of fossil fuels for which countries have serious difficulties in switching to alternatives, and the situations of countries highly vulnerable to adverse effects of climate change.

Activities

9.12. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and non -governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
a. Cooperate in identifying and developing economically viable, environme ntally sound energy sources to promote the availability of increased energy supplies to support sustainable development efforts, in particular in developing countries;
b. Promote the development at the national level of appropriate methodologies for making integrated energy, environment and economic policy decisions for sustainable development, inter alia, through environmental impact assessments;
c. Promote the research, development, transfer and use of improved energy -efficient technologies and practices, inc luding endogenous technologies in all relevant sectors, giving special attention to the rehabilitation and modernization of power systems, with particular attention to developing countries;
d. Promote the research, development, transfer and use of technologi es and practices for environmentally sound energy systems, including new and renewable energy systems, with particular attention to developing countries;
e. Promote the development of institutional, scientific, planning and management capacities, particularly in developing countries, to develop, produce and use increasingly efficient and less polluting forms of energy;
f. Review current energy supply mixes to determine how the contribution of environmentally sound energy systems as a whole, particularly new and renewable energy systems, could be increased in an economically efficient manner, taking into account respective countries' unique social, physical, economic and political characteristics, and examining and implementing, where appropriate, measures to ove rcome any barriers to their development and use;
g. Coordinate energy plans regionally and subregionally, where applicable, and study the feasibility of efficient distribution of environmentally sound energy from new and renewable energy sources;
h. In accordance with national socio -economic development and environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost -effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic measures, in order to improve energy efficiency;
i. Build capacity for energy planning and programme management in energy efficiency, as well as for the development, introduction, and promotion of new and renewable sources of energy;
j. Promote appropriate energy efficiency and emission standards or recommendations at the national level, 2/ aimed at the development and use of technologies that minimize adverse impacts on the environment;
k. Encourage education and awareness -raising programmes at the local, national, subregional and regional levels concerning energy effici ency and environmentally sound energy systems;
l. Establish or enhance, as appropriate, in cooperation with the private sector, labelling programmes for products to provide decision makers and consumers with information on opportunities for energy efficiency .
2. Transportation
Basis for action

9.13. The transport sector has an essential and positive role to play in economic and social development, and transportation needs will undoubtedly increase. However, since the transport sector is also a source of atmosph eric emissions, there is need for a review of existing transport systems and for more effective design and management of traffic and transport systems.

Objectives

9.14. The basic objective of this programme area is to develop and promote cost -effective polic ies or programmes, as appropriate, to limit, reduce or control, as appropriate, harmful emissions into the atmosphere and other adverse environmental effects of the transport sector, taking into account development priorities as well as the specific local and national circumstances and safety aspects.

Activities

9.15. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and non -governmental organizations, and the private sector , should:
a. Develop and promote, as appropriate, cost -effective, more efficient, less polluting and safer transport systems, particularly integrated rural and urban mass transit, as well as environmentally sound road networks, taking into account the needs for sustainable social, economic and development priorities, particularly in developing countries;
b. Facilitate at the international, regional, subregional and national levels access to and the transfer of safe, efficient, including resource -efficient, and less polluting transport technologies, particularly to the developing countries, including the implementation of appropriate training programmes;
c. Strengthen, as appropriate, their efforts at collecting, analysing and exchanging relevant information on the relation between environment and transport, with particular emphasis on the systematic observation of emissions and the development of a transport database;
d. In accordance with national socio -economic development and environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost -effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic measures, in order to encourage use of transportation modes that minimize adverse impacts on the atmosphere;
e. Develop or enhance, as appropriate, m echanisms to integrate transport planning strategies and urban and regional settlement planning strategies, with a view to reducing the environmental impacts of transport;
f. Study, within the framework of the United Nations and its regional commissions, the
feasibility of convening regional conferences on transport and the environment.

3. Industrial development
   Basis for action

9.16. Industry is essential for the production of goods and services and is a major source of employment and income, and industrial d evelopment as such is essential for economic growth. At the same time, industry is a major resource and materials user and consequently industrial activities result in emissions into the atmosphere and the environment as a whole. Protection of the atmosphe re can be enhanced, inter alia, by increasing resource and materials efficiency in industry, installing or improving pollution abatement technologies and replacing chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other ozone-depleting substances with appropriate substitutes , as well as by reducing wastes and by - products.

Objectives

9.17. The basic objective of this programme area is to encourage industrial development in ways that minimize adverse impacts on the atmosphere by, inter alia, increasing efficiency in the productio n and consumption by industry of all resources and materials, by improving pollution -abatement technologies and by developing new environmentally sound technologies.

Activities

9.18. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and non -governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
a. In accordance with national socio -economic development and environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost -effective policies or programmes, including administrative, social and economic measures, in order to minimize industrial pollution and adverse impacts on the atmosphere;
b. Encourage industry to increase and strengthen its capacity to develop technologies, products and processes that are safe, less polluting and make more efficient use of all resources and materials, including energy;
c. Cooperate in the development and transfer of such industrial technologies and in the development of capacities to manage and use such technologies, particularly with respect to developing countries;
d. Develop, improve and apply environmental impact assessments to foster sustainable industrial development;
e. Promote efficient use of materials and resources, taking into account the life cycles of products, in order to realize the economic and environmental benefits of using resources more efficiently and producing fewer wastes;
f. Support the promotion of less polluting and more efficient technologies and processes in industries, taking into account area -specific accessible potentials for energy, particularly safe and renewable sources of energy, with a view to limiting industrial pollution, and adverse impacts on the atmosphere.

4. Terrestrial and marine resource development and lan d use
   Basis for action

9.19. Land-use and resource policies will both affect and be affected by changes in the atmosphere. Certain practices related to terrestrial and marine resources and land use can decrease greenhouse gas sinks and increase atmospheric em issions. The loss of biological diversity may reduce the resilience of ecosystems to climatic variations and air pollution damage. Atmospheric changes can have important impacts on forests, biodiversity, and freshwater and marine ecosystems, as well as on economic activities, such as agriculture. Policy objectives in different sectors may often diverge and will need to be handled in an integrated manner.

Objectives

9.20. The objectives of this programme area are:
a. To promote terrestrial and marine resource ut ilization and appropriate land -use practices that contribute to:
i. The reduction of atmospheric pollution and/or the limitation of anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases;
ii. The conservation, sustainable management and enhancement, where appropriate, of all sinks for greenhouse gases;
iii. The conservation and sustainable use of natural and environmental resources;
b. To ensure that actual and potential atmospheric changes and their socio -economic and ecological impacts are fully taken into account in planning and implementing policies and programmes concerning terrestrial and marine resources utilization and land -use practices.
Activities

9.21. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, int ergovernmental and non -governmental organizations, and the private sector, should:
a. In accordance with national socio -economic development and environment priorities, evaluate and, as appropriate, promote cost -effective policies or programmes, including ad ministrative, social and economic measures, in order to encourage environmentally sound land -use practices;
b. Implement policies and programmes that will discourage inappropriate and polluting land -use practices and promote sustainable utilization of terres trial and marine resources;
c. Consider promoting the development and use of terrestrial and marine resources and land -use practices that will be more resilient to atmospheric changes and fluctuations;
d. Promote sustainable management and cooperation in the c onservation and enhancement, as appropriate, of sinks and reservoirs of greenhouse gases, including biomass, forests and oceans, as well as other terrestrial, coastal and marine ecosystems.

C. Preventing stratospheric ozone depletion
Basis for action

9.22. Analysis of recent scientific data has confirmed the growing concern about the continuing depletion of the Earth's stratospheric ozone layer by reactive chlorine and bromine from man -made CFCs, halons and related substances. While the 1985 Vienna Conventio n for the Protection of the Ozone Layer and the 1987 Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (as amended in London in 1990) were important steps in international action, the total chlorine loading of the atmosphere of ozone -depleting substances has continued to rise. This can be changed through compliance with the control measures identified within the Protocol.

Objectives

9.23. The objectives of this programme area are:
a. To realize the objectives defined in the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol and its 1990 amendments, including the consideration in those instruments of the special needs and conditions of the developing countries and the availability to them of alternatives to substances that deplete the ozone layer. Technologie s and natural products that reduce demand for these substances should be encouraged;
b. To develop strategies aimed at mitigating the adverse effects of ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface as a consequence of depletion and modification of the stratospheric ozone layer.
Activities

9.24. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and non -governmental organizations, and the private sector, should: a. Ratify, acc ept or approve the Montreal Protocol and its 1990 amendments; pay their contributions towards the Vienna/Montreal trust funds and the interim multilateral ozone fund promptly; and contribute, as appropriate, towards ongoing efforts under the Montreal Proto col and its implementing mechanisms, including making available substitutes for CFCs and other ozone-depleting substances and facilitating the transfer of the corresponding technologies to developing countries in order to enable them to comply with the obl igations of the Protocol;
b. Support further expansion of the Global Ozone Observing System by facilitating - through bilateral and multilateral funding - the establishment and operation of additional systematic observation stations, especially in the tropic al belt in the southern hemisphere;
c. Participate actively in the continuous assessment of scientific information and the health and environmental effects, as well as of the technological/economic implications of stratospheric ozone depletion; and consider further actions that prove warranted and feasible on the basis of these assessments;
d. Based on the results of research on the effects of the additional ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface, consider taking appropriate remedial measures in the fields of human health, agriculture and marine environment;
e. Replace CFCs and other ozone -depleting substances, consistent with the Montreal Protocol, recognizing that a replacement's suitability should be evaluated holistically and not simply based on its contribution to solving one atmospheric or environmental problem.
D. Transboundary atmospheric pollution
Basis for action

9.25. Transboundary air pollution has adverse health impacts on humans and other detrimental environmental impacts, such as tree and f orest loss and the acidification of water bodies. The geographical distribution of atmospheric pollution monitoring networks is uneven, with the developing countries severely underrepresented. The lack of reliable emissions data outside Europe and North America is a major constraint to measuring transboundary air pollution. There is also insufficient information on the environmental and health effects of air pollution in other regions.

9.26. The 1979 Convention on Long -range Transboundary Air Pollution, and its protocols, have established a regional regime in Europe and North America, based on a review process and cooperative programmes for systematic observation of air pollution, assessment and information exchange. These programmes need to be continued and enh anced, and their experience needs to be shared with other regions of the world.

Objectives

9.27. The objectives of this programme area are:
a. To develop and apply pollution control and measurement technologies for stationary and mobile sources of air pollutio n and to develop alternative environmentally sound technologies;
b. To observe and assess systematically the sources and extent of transboundary air pollution resulting from natural processes and anthropogenic activities;
c. To strengthen the capabilities, par ticularly of developing countries, to measure, model and assess the fate and impacts of transboundary air pollution, through, inter alia, exchange of information and training of experts;
d. To develop capabilities to assess and mitigate transboundary air pol lution resulting from industrial and nuclear accidents, natural disasters and the deliberate and/or accidental destruction of natural resources;
e. To encourage the establishment of new and the implementation of existing regional agreements for limiting tran sboundary air pollution;
f. To develop strategies aiming at the reduction of emissions causing transboundary air pollution and their effects.
Activities

9.28. Governments at the appropriate level, with the cooperation of the relevant United Nations bodies and, as appropriate, intergovernmental and non -governmental organizations, the private sector and financial institutions, should:
a. Establish and/or strengthen regional agreements for transboundary air pollution control and cooperate, particularly with developin g countries, in the areas of systematic observation and assessment, modelling and the development and exchange of emission control technologies for mobile and stationary sources of air pollution. In this context, greater emphasis should be put on addressin g the extent, causes, health and socio -economic impacts of ultraviolet radiation, acidification of the environment and photo -oxidant damage to forests and other vegetation;
b. Establish or strengthen early warning systems and response mechanisms for transbou ndary air pollution resulting from industrial accidents and natural disasters and the deliberate and/or accidental destruction of natural resources;
c. Facilitate training opportunities and exchange of data, information and national and/or regional experienc es;
d. Cooperate on regional, multilateral and bilateral bases to assess transboundary air pollution, and elaborate and implement programmes identifying specific actions to reduce atmospheric emissions and to address their environmental, economic, social and other effects.
Means of implementation

International and regional cooperation

9.29. Existing legal instruments have created institutional structures which relate to the purposes of these instruments, and relevant work should primarily continue in those con texts. Governments should continue to cooperate and enhance their cooperation at the regional and global levels, including cooperation within the United Nations system. In this context reference is made to the recommendations in chapter 38 of Agenda 21 (In ternational institutional arrangements).

Capacity-building

9.30. Countries, in cooperation with the relevant United Nations bodies, international donors and non - governmental organizations, should mobilize technical and financial resources and facilitate tech nical cooperation with developing countries to reinforce their technical, managerial, planning and administrative capacities to promote sustainable development and the protection of the atmosphere, in all relevant sectors.

Human resource development

9.31. Education and awareness -raising programmes concerning the promotion of sustainable development and the protection of the atmosphere need to be introduced and strengthened at the local, national and international levels in all relevant sectors.

Financial and cost evaluation

9.32. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993 -2000) of implementing the activities under programme area A to be about $640 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are i ndicative and order -of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide up on for implementation.

9.33. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993 -2000) of implementing the activities of the four -part programme under programme area B to be about $20 billion from the international community on grant o r concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non -concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

9.34. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993 -2000) of implementing the activities under programme area C to be in the range of $160 -590 million on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order -of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non -concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

9.35. The Conference secretariat has included costing for technical assistance and pilot programmes under paragraphs 9.32 and 9.33.

Notes
1/ New and renewable energy sources are solar thermal, solar photovoltaic, wind, hydro, biomass, geothermal, ocean, animal and human power, as referred to in the reports of the Committee on the Development and Utilization of New and Renewable Sources of Energy, prepared specifically for the Conference (see A/CONF.151/PC/119 and A/AC.218/1992/5).

2/ This includes standards or recommendations promoted by regional economic integration organizations.
Agenda 21 – Chapter 10 INTEGRATED APPROACH TO THE PLANNING AND MANAGEMENT OF LAND RESOURCES 10.1. Land is normally defined as a physical e ntity in terms of its topography and spatial nature; a broader integrative view also includes natural resources: the soils, minerals, water and biota that the land comprises. These components are organized in ecosystems which provide a variety of services essential to the maintenance of the integrity of life -support systems and the productive capacity of the environment. Land resources are used in ways that take advantage of all these characteristics. Land is a finite resource, while the natural resources i t supports can vary over time and according to management conditions and uses. Expanding human requirements and economic activities are placing ever increasing pressures on land resources, creating competition and conflicts and resulting in suboptimal use of both land and land resources. If, in the future, human requirements are to be met in a sustainable manner, it is now essential to resolve these conflicts and move towards more effective and efficient use of land and its natural resources. Integrated phy sical and land-use planning and management is an eminently practical way to achieve this. By examining all uses of land in an integrated manner, it makes it possible to minimize conflicts, to make the most efficient trade -offs and to link social and econom ic development with environmental protection and enhancement, thus helping to achieve the objectives of sustainable development. The essence of the integrated approach finds expression in the coordination of the sectoral planning and management activities concerned with the various aspects of land use and land resources.

10.2. The present chapter consists of one programme area, the integrated approach to the planning and management of land resources, which deals with the reorganization and, where necessary, som e strengthening of the decision -making structure, including existing policies, planning and management procedures and methods that can assist in putting in place an integrated approach to land resources. It does not deal with the operational aspects of pla nning and management, which are more appropriately dealt with under the relevant sectoral programmes. Since the programme deals with an important cross -sectoral aspect of decision -making for sustainable development, it is closely related to a number of oth er programmes that deal with that issue directly.

PROGRAMME AREA

Integrated approach to the planning and management of land resources

Basis for action

10.3. Land resources are used for a variety of purposes which interact and may compete with one anothe r; therefore, it is desirable to plan and manage all uses in an integrated manner. Integration should take place at two levels, considering, on the one hand, all environmental, social and economic factors (including, for example, impacts of the various eco nomic and social sectors on the environment and natural resources) and, on the other, all environmental and resource components together (i.e., air, water, biota, land, geological and natural resources). Integrated consideration facilitates appropriate choices and trade-offs, thus maximizing sustainable productivity and use. Opportunities to allocate land to different uses arise in the course of major settlement or development projects or in a sequential fashion as lands become available on the market. This in turn provides opportunities to support traditional patterns of sustainable land management or to assign protected status for conservation of biological diversity or critical ecological services.

10.4. A number of techniques, frameworks and processes can be combined to facilitate an integrated approach. They are the indispensable support for the planning and management process, at the national and local level, ecosystem or area levels and for the development of specific plans of action. Many of its elements are already in place but need to be more widely applied, further developed and strengthened. This programme area is concerned primarily with providing a framework that will coordinate decision -making; the content and operational functions are therefore not included here but are dealt with in the relevant sectoral programmes of Agenda 21.

Objectives

10.5. The broad objective is to facilitate allocation of land to the uses that provide the greatest sustainable benefits and to promote the transition to a sustain able and integrated management of land resources. In doing so, environmental, social and economic issues should be taken into consideration. Protected areas, private property rights, the rights of indigenous people and their communities and other local communities and the economic role of women in agriculture and rural development, among other issues, should be taken into account. In more specific terms, the objectives are as follows:
a. To review and develop policies to support the best possible use of land and the sustainable management of land resources, by not later than 1996;
b. To improve and strengthen planning, management and evaluation systems for land and land resources, by not later than 2000;
c. To strengthen institutions and coordinating mechanisms fo r land and land resources, by not later than 1998;
d. To create mechanisms to facilitate the active involvement and participation of all concerned, particularly communities and people at the local level, in decision -making on land use and management, by not later than 1996.
Activities

(a) Management-related activities

Developing supportive policies and policy instruments

10.6. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional and international organizations, should ensure that policies and p olicy instruments support the best possible land use and sustainable management of land resources. Particular attention should be given to the role of agricultural land. To do this, they should:
a. Develop integrated goal -setting and policy formulation at th e national, regional and local levels that takes into account environmental, social, demographic and economic issues;
b. Develop policies that encourage sustainable land use and management of land resources and take the land resource base, demographic issues and the interests of the local population into account;
c. Review the regulatory framework, including laws, regulations and enforcement procedures, in order to identify improvements needed to support sustainable land use and management of land resources and restricts the transfer of productive arable land to other uses;
d. Apply economic instruments and develop institutional mechanisms and incentives to encourage the best possible land use and sustainable management of land resources;
e. Encourage the principle of delegating policy -making to the lowest level of public authority consistent with effective action and a locally driven approach.
Strengthening planning and management systems

10.7. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional and inte rnational organizations, should review and, if appropiate, revise planning and management systems to facilitate an integrated approach. To do this, they should:

a. Adopt planning and management systems that facilitate the integration of environmental components such as air, water, land and other natural resources, using landscape ecological planning (LANDEP) or other approaches that focus on, for example, an ecosystem or a watershed;
b. Adopt strategic frameworks that allow the integration of both developmenta l and environmental goals; examples of these frameworks include sustainable livelihood systems, rural development, the World Conservation Strategy/Caring for the Earth, primary environmental care (PEC) and others;
c. Establish a general framework for land -use and physical planning within which specialized and more detailed sectoral plans (e.g., for protected areas, agriculture, forests, human settlements, rural development) can be developed; establish intersectoral consultative bodies to streamline project pl anning and implementation;
d. Strengthen management systems for land and natural resources by including appropriate traditional and indigenous methods; examples of these practices include pastoralism, Hema reserves (traditional Islamic land reserves) and ter raced agriculture;
e. Examine and, if necessary, establish innovative and flexible approaches to programme funding;
f. Compile detailed land capability inventories to guide sustainable land resources allocation, management and use at the national and local lev els.
Promoting application of appropriate tools for planning and management

10.8. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of national and international organizations, should promote the improvement, further development and widespread applicatio n of planning and management tools that facilitate an integrated and sustainable approach to land and resources. To do this, they should:
a. Adopt improved systems for the interpretation and integrated analysis of data on land use and land resources;
b. Systematically apply techniques and procedures for assessing the environmental, social and economic impacts, risks, costs and benefits of specific actions;
c. Analyse and test methods to include land and ecosystem functions and land resources values in national ac counts.
Raising awareness

10.9. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with national institutions and interest groups and with the support of regional and international organizations, should launch awareness -raising campaigns to alert and educ ate people on the importance of integrated land and land resources management and the role that individuals and social groups can play in it. This should be accompanied by provision of the means to adopt improved practices for land use and sustainable management.

Promoting public participation

10.10. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with national organizations and with the support of regional and international organizations, should establish innovative procedures, programmes, projects and s ervices that facilitate and encourage the active participation of those affected in the decision -making and implementation process, especially of groups that have, hitherto, often been excluded, such as women, youth, indigenous people and their communities and other local communities.

(b) Data and information

Strengthening information systems
10.11. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with national institutions and the private sector and with the support of regional and international organi zations, should strengthen the information systems necessary for making decisions and evaluating future changes on land use and management. The needs of both men and women should be taken into account. To do this, they should:
a. Strengthen information, syst ematic observation and assessment systems for environmental, economic and social data related to land resources at the global, regional, national and local levels and for land capability and land -use and management patterns;
b. Strengthen coordination betwee n existing sectoral data systems on land and land resources and strengthen national capacity to gather and assess data;
c. Provide the appropriate technical information necessary for informed decision - making on land use and management in an accessible form t o all sectors of the population, especially to local communities and women;
d. Support low-cost, community -managed systems for the collection of comparable information on the status and processes of change of land resources, including soils, forest cover, wi ldlife, climate and other elements.
(c) International and regional coordination and cooperation Establishing regional machinery

10.12. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of regional and international organizations, should strengthen regiona l cooperation and exchange of information on land resources. To do this, they should:
a. Study and design regional policies to support programmes for land -use and physical planning;
b. Promote the development of land -use and physical plans in the countries of the region;
c. Design information systems and promote training;
d. Exchange, through networks and other appropriate means, information on experiences with the process and results of integrated and participatory planning and management of land resources at the national and local levels.
Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

10.13. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993 -2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $50 million from the i nternational community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order -of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

Enhancing scientific understanding of the land resources system

10.14. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration wit h the national and international scientific community and with the support of appropriate national and international organizations, should promote and support research, tailored to local environments, on the land resources system and the implications for sustainable development and management practices. Priority should be given, as appropriate, to: a. Assessment of land potential capability and ecosystem functions;
b. Ecosystemic interactions and interactions between land resources and social, economic and environmental systems;
c. Developing indicators of sustainability for land resources, taking into account environmental, economic, social, demographic, cultural and political factors.
Testing research findings through pilot projects

10.15. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with the national and international scientific community and with the support of the relevant international organizations, should research and test, through pilot projects, the applicability of improved approaches to the integrated planning and management of land resources, including technical, social and institutional factors.

(c) Human resource development

Enhancing education and training

10.16. Governments at the appropriate level, in collaboration with the appropriate local authorities, non- governmental organizations and international institutions, should promote the development of the human resources that are required to plan and manage land and land resources sustainably. This should be done by providing incentives for local initiatives and by enhancing local management capacity, particularly of women, through: a. Emphasizing interdisciplinary and integrative approaches in the curricula of schools and technical, vocational and university training;
b. Training all relevant sectors concerned to deal with land resources in an integrated and sustainable manner;
c. Training communities, relevant extension services, community-based groups and non- governmental organizations on land management techniques and approaches applied successfully elsewhere.
(d) Capacity-building Strengthening technological capacity

10.17. Governments at the appropriate level, in cooperation with other Governments and with the support of relevant international organizations, should promote focused and concerted efforts for education and training and the transfer of techniques and technologies that support the various aspects of the sustainable planning and management process at the national, state/provincial and local levels.

Strengthening institutions

10.18. Governments at t he appropriate level, with the support of appropriate international organizations, should:
a. Review and, where appropriate, revise the mandates of institutions that deal with land and natural resources to include explicitly the interdisciplinary integration of environmental, social and economic issues;