developments. Subsequently, the development and performance of country -level training institutions should be enhanced so that they can play a pivotal role in capacity -building. It is also important that countries provide adequate training for women in the sustainable maintenance of equipment, water resources management and environmental sanitation.
(d) Capacity-building
18.54. The implementation of water -supply and sanitation programmes is a national responsibility. To varying degrees, responsibility for the implementation of projects and the operating of systems should be delegated to all administrative levels down to the commu nity and individual served. This also means that national authorities, together with the agencies and bodies of the United Nations system and other external support agencies providing support to national programmes, should develop mechanisms and procedures to collaborate at all levels. This is particularly important if full advantage is to be taken of community -based approaches and self -reliance as tools for sustainability. This will entail a high degree of community participation, involving women, in the c onception, planning, decision -making, implementation and evaluation connected with projects for domestic water-supply and sanitation.
18.55. Overall national capacity -building at all administrative levels, involving institutional development, coordination, huma n resources, community participation, health and hygiene education and literacy, has to be developed according to its fundamental connection both with any efforts to improve health and socio-economic development through water -supply and sanitation and with their impact on the human environment. Capacity -building should therefore be one of the underlying keys in implementation strategies. Institutional capacity -building should be considered to have an importance equal to that of the sector supplies and equip ment component so that funds can be directed to both. This can be undertaken at the planning or programme/project formulation stage, accompanied by a clear definition of objectives and targets. In this regard, technical cooperation among developing countries owing to their available wealth of information and experience and the need to avoid "reinventing the wheel", is crucial. Such a course has proved cost -effective in many country projects already.
E. Water and sustainable urban development
Basis for action
18.56. Early in the next century, more than half of the world's population will be living in urban areas. By the year 2025, that proportion will have risen to 60 per cent, comprising some 5 billion people. Rapid urban population growth and industrializati on are putting severe strains on the water resources and environmental protection capabilities of many cities. Special attention needs to be given to the growing effects of urbanization on water demands and usage and to the critical role played by local and municipal authorities in managing the supply, use and overall treatment of water, particularly in developing countries for which special support is needed. Scarcity of freshwater resources and the escalating costs of developing new resources have a consi derable impact on national industrial, agricultural and human settlement development and economic growth. Better management of urban water resources, including the elimination of unsustainable consumption patterns, can make a substantial contribution to th e alleviation of poverty and improvement of the health and quality of life of the urban and rural poor. A high proportion of large urban agglomerations are located around estuaries and in coastal zones. Such an arrangement leads to pollution from municipal and industrial discharges combined with overexploitation of available water resources and threatens the marine environment and the supply of freshwater resources.
Objectives
18.57. The development objective of this programme is to support local and central G overnments' efforts and capacities to sustain national development and productivity through environmentally sound management of water resources for urban use. Supporting this objective is the identification and implementation of strategies and actions to ensure the continued supply of affordable water for present and future needs and to reverse current trends of resource degradation and depletion.
18.58.
All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and through bilateral or multilateral
cooperation, including the United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could set
the following targets:
a.
By the year 2000, to have ensured that all urban residents have access to at least 40 litres per
capita per day of safe water and that 75 per cent of the urban population are provided with on-
site or community facilities for sanitation;
b.
By the year 2000, to have established and applied quantitative and qualitative discharge
standards for municipal and industrial effluents;
c.
By the year 2000, to have ensured that 75 per cent of solid waste generated in urban areas are
collected and recycled or disposed of in an environmentally safe way.
Activities
18.59.
All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and through bilateral or multilateral
cooperation, including the United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could
implement the following activities:
a.
Protection of water resources from depletion, pollution and degradation:
i.
Introduction of sanitary waste disposal facilities based on environmentally sound
low-cost and upgradable technologies;
ii.
Implementation of urban storm-water run-off and drainage programmes;
iii.
Promotion of recycling and reuse of waste water and solid wastes;
iv.
Control of industrial pollution sources to protect water resources;
v.
Protection of watersheds with respect to depletion and degradation of their forest
cover and from harmful upstream activities;
vi.
Promotion of research into the contribution of forests to sustainable water resources
development;
vii.
Encouragement of the best management practices for the use of agrochemicals with a
view to minimizing their impact on water resources;
b.
Efficient and equitable allocation of water resources:
i.
Reconciliation of city development planning with the availability and sustainability
of water resources;
ii.
Satisfaction of the basic water needs of the urban population;
iii.
Introduction of water tariffs, taking into account the circumstances in each country
and where affordable, that reflect the marginal and opportunity cost of water,
especially for productive activities;
c.
Institutional/legal/management reforms:
i.
Adoption of a city-wide approach to the management of water resources;
ii.
Promotion at the national and local level of the elaboration of land-use plans that
give due consideration to water resources development;
iii.
Utilization of the skills and potential of non-governmental organizations, the private
sector and local people, taking into account the public's and strategic interests in
water resources;
d.
Promotion of public participation:
i.
Initiation of public-awareness campaigns to encourage the public's move towards
rational water utilization;
ii.
Sensitization of the public to the issue of protecting water quality within the urban
environment;
iii.
Promotion of public participation in the collection, recycling and elimination of
wastes;
e.
Support to local capacity-building:
i.
Development of legislation and policies to promote investments in urban water and
waste management, reflecting the major contribution of cities to national economic
development;
ii.
Provision of seed money and technical support to the local handling of materials
supply and services;
iii.
Encouragement, to the extent possible, of autonomy and financial viability of city
water, solid waste and sewerage utilities;
iv.
Creation and maintenance of a cadre of professionals and semi-professionals, for
water, waste-water and solid waste management;
f.
Provision of enhanced access to sanitary services:
i.
Implementation of water, sanitation and waste management programmes focused on
the urban poor;
ii.
Making available of low-cost water-supply and sanitation technology choices;
iii.
Basing of choice of technology and service levels on user preferences and
willingness to pay;
iv.
Mobilization and facilitation of the active involvement of women in water
management teams;
v.
Encouragement and equipment of local water associations and water committees to
manage community water-supply systems and communal latrines, with technical
back-up available when required;
vi.
Consideration of the merits and practicality of rehabilitating existing malfunctioning
systems and of correcting operation and maintenance inadequacies.
Means of implementation
(a) Financing and cost evaluation
18.60. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $20 billion, including about $4.5 billion from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of- magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial
terms, including any that are non -concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.
(b) Scientific and technological means
18.61. The 1980s saw considerable progress in the development and application of low -cost water-supply and sanitation technologies. The programme envisages continuation of this work, with particular emphasis on development of appropriate sanitation and waste dis posal technologies for low -income high-density urban settlements. There should also be international information exchange, to ensure a widespread recognition among sector professionals of the availability and benefits of appropriate low-cost technologies. The public-awareness campaigns will also include components to overcome user resistance to second -class services by emphasizing the benefits of reliability and sustainability.
(c) Human resource development
18.62. Implicit in virtually all elements of this pro gramme is the need for progressive enhancement of the
training and career development of personnel at all levels in sector institutions. Specific programme
activities will involve the training and retention of staff with skills in community involvement, lo w-
cost technology, financial management, and integrated planning of urban water resources
management. Special provision should be made for mobilizing and facilitating the active
participation of women, youth, indigenous people and local communities in wate r management teams
and for supporting the development of water associations and water committees, with appropriate
training of such personnel as treasurers, secretaries and caretakers. Special education and training
programmes for women should be launched with regard to the protection of water resources and
water-quality within urban areas.
(d) Capacity-building
18.63. In combination with human resource development, strengthening of institutional, legislative and management structures are key elements of the p rogramme. A prerequisite for progress in enhancing access to water and sanitation services is the establishment of an institutional framework that ensures that the real needs and potential contributions of currently unserved populations are reflected in ur ban development planning. The multisectoral approach, which is a vital part of urban water resources management, requires institutional linkages at the national and city levels, and the programme includes proposals for establishing intersectoral planning g roups. Proposals for greater pollution control and prevention depend for their success on the right combination of economic and regulatory mechanisms, backed by adequate monitoring and surveillance and supported by enhanced capacity to address environmenta l issues on the part of local Governments.
18.64. Establishment of appropriate design standards, water -quality objectives and discharge consents is therefore among the proposed activities. The programme also includes support for strengthening the capability of water and sewerage agencies and for developing their autonomy and financial viability. Operation and maintenance of existing water and sanitation facilities have been recognized as entailing a serious shortcoming in many countries. Technical and financial support are needed to help countries correct present inadequacies and build up the capacity to operate and maintain rehabilitated and new systems.
F. Water for sustainable food production and rural development
Basis for action
18.65. Sustainability of food production increasingly depends on sound and efficient water use and conservation practices consisting primarily of irrigation development and management, including water management with respect to rain -fed areas, livestock water -supply, inland fisheries and agro- forestry. Achieving food security is a high priority in many countries, and agriculture must not only provide food for rising populations, but also save water for other uses. The challenge is to develop and apply water -saving technology and manage ment methods and, through capacity -building, enable communities to introduce institutions and incentives for the rural population to adopt new approaches, for both rain -fed and irrigated agriculture. The rural population must also have better access to a p otable water-supply and to sanitation services. It is an immense task but not an impossible one, provided appropriate policies and programmes are adopted at all levels - local, national and international. While significant expansion of the area under rain -fed agriculture has been achieved during the past decade, the productivity response and sustainability of irrigation systems have been constrained by problems of waterlogging and salinization. Financial and market constraints are also a common problem. Soi l erosion, mismanagement and overexploitation of natural resources and acute competition for water have all influenced the extent of poverty, hunger and famine in the developing countries. Soil erosion caused by overgrazing of livestock is also often responsible for the siltation of lakes. Most often, the development of irrigation schemes is supported neither by environmental impact assessments identifying hydrologic consequences within watersheds of interbasin transfers, nor by the assessment of social imp acts on peoples in river valleys.
18.66. The non-availability of water -supplies of suitable quality is a significant limiting factor to livestock production in many countries, and improper disposal of animal wastes can in certain circumstances result in polluti on of water -supplies for both humans and animals. The drinking -water requirements of livestock vary according to species and the environment in which they are kept. It is estimated that the current global livestock drinking -water requirement is about 60 bi llion litres per day and based on livestock population growth estimates, this daily requirement is predicted to increase by 0.4 billion litres per annum in the foreseeable future.
18.67. Freshwater fisheries in lakes and streams are an important source of food and protein. Fisheries of inland waters should be so managed as to maximize the yield of aquatic food organisms in an environmentally sound manner. This requires the conservation of water -quality and quantity, as well as of the functional morphology of the aquatic environment. On the other hand, fishing and aquaculture may themselves damage the aquatic ecosystem; hence their development should conform to guidelines for impact limitation. Present levels of production from inland fisheries, from both fresh and brackish water, are about 7 million tons per year and could increase to 16 million tons per year by the year 2000; however, any increase in environmental stress could jeopardize this rise.
Objectives
18.68. The key strategic principles for holistic and inte grated environmentally sound management of
water resources in the rural context may be set forth as follows:
a. Water should be regarded as a finite resource having an economic value with significant
social and economic implications reflecting the importance of meeting basic needs;
b. Local communities must participate in all phases of water management, ensuring the full
involvement of women in view of their crucial role in the practical day -to-day supply,
management and use of water;
c. Water resource management must be developed within a comprehensive set of policies for (i)
human health; (ii) food production, preservation and distribution; (iii) disaster mitigation
plans; (iv) environmental protection and conservation of the natural resource base;
d. It is necessary to recognize and actively support the role of rural populations, with particular
emphasis on women.
18.69. An International Action Programme on Water and Sustainable Agricultural Development (IAP -
WASAD) has been initiated by FAO in cooperation with other int ernational organizations. The main
objective of the Action Programme is to assist developing countries in planning, developing and
managing water resources on an integrated basis to meet present and future needs for agricultural
production, taking into acc ount environmental considerations.
18.70. The Action Programme has developed a framework for sustainable water use in the agricultural sector and identified priority areas for action at national, regional and global levels. Quantitative targets for new irrigati on development, improvement of existing irrigation schemes and reclamation of waterlogged and salinized lands through drainage for 130 developing countries are estimated on the basis of food requirements, agro -climatic zones and availability of water and l and.
18.71. FAO global projections for irrigation, drainage and small -scale water programmes by the year 2000 for 130 developing countries are as follows: (a) 15.2 million hectares of new irrigation development; (b) 12 million hectares of improvement/modernizat ion of existing schemes; (c) 7 million hectares installed with drainage and water control facilities; and (d) 10 million hectares of small-scale water programmes and conservation.
18.72. The development of new irrigation areas at the above -mentioned level may g ive rise to environmental concerns in so far as it implies the destruction of wetlands, water pollution, increased sedimentation and a reduction in biodiversity. Therefore, new irrigation schemes should be accompanied by an environmental impact assessment, depending upon the scale of the scheme, in case significant negative environmental impacts are expected. When considering proposals for new irrigation schemes, consideration should also be given to a more rational exploitation, and an increase in the efficiency or productivity, of any existing schemes capable of serving the same localities. Technologies for new irrigation schemes should be thoroughly evaluated, including their potential conflicts with other land uses. The active involvement of water -users groups is a supporting objective.
18.73. It should be ensured that rural communities of all countries, according to their capacities and available resources and taking advantage of international cooperation as appropriate, will have access to safe water in suff icient quantities and adequate sanitation to meet their health needs and maintain the essential qualities of their local environments.
18.74. The objectives with regard to water management for inland fisheries and aquaculture include conservation of water -quality and water -quantity requirements for optimum production and prevention of water pollution by aquacultural activities. The Action Programme seeks to assist member countries in managing the fisheries of inland waters through the promotion of sustainable management of capture fisheries as well as the development of environmentally sound approaches to intensification of aquaculture.
18.75. The objectives with regard to water management for livestock supply are twofold: provision of adequate amounts of drinking -water and safeguarding of drinking -water quality in accordance with the specific needs of different animal species. This entails maximum salinity tolerance levels and the absence of pathogenic organisms. No global targets can be set owing to large regional an d intra- country variations.
Activities
18.76. All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and through bilateral or multilateral
cooperation, including the United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could
implement the following activities:
a. Water-supply and sanitation for the unserved rural poor:
i. Establish national policies and budget priorities with regard to increasing service
coverage;
ii. Promote appropriate technologies;
iii. Introduce suitable cost -recovery mechanisms, taking into account efficiency and
equity through demand management mechanisms;
iv.
Promote community ownership and rights to water-supply and sanitation facilities;
v.
Establish monitoring and evaluation systems;
vi.
Strengthen the rural water-supply and sanitation sector with emphasis on institutional
development, efficient management and an appropriate framework for financing of
services;
vii.
Increase hygiene education and eliminate disease transmission foci;
viii.
Adopt appropriate technologies for water treatment;
ix.
Adopt wide-scale environmental management measures to control disease vectors;
b.
Water-use efficiency:
i.
Increase of efficiency and productivity in agricultural water use for better utilization
of limited water resources;
ii.
Strengthen water and soil management research under irrigation and rain-fed
conditions;
iii.
Monitor and evaluate irrigation project performance to ensure, inter alia, the optimal
utilization and proper maintenance of the project;
iv.
Support water-users groups with a view to improving management performance at
the local level;
v.
Support the appropriate use of relatively brackish water for irrigation;
c.
Waterlogging, salinity control and drainage:
i.
Introduce surface drainage in rain-fed agriculture to prevent temporary waterlogging
and flooding of lowlands;
ii.
Introduce artificial drainage in irrigated and rain-fed agriculture;
iii.
Encourage conjunctive use of surface and groundwaters, including monitoring and
water-balance studies;
iv.
Practise drainage in irrigated areas of arid and semi-arid regions;
d.
Water-quality management:
i.
Establish and operate cost-effective water-quality monitoring systems for
agricultural water uses;
ii.
Prevent adverse effects of agricultural activities on water-quality for other social and
economic activities and on wetlands, inter alia, through optimal use of on-farm input
and the minimization of the use of external input in agricultural activities;
iii.
Establish biological, physical and chemical water-quality criteria for agricultural
water-users and for marine and riverine ecosystems;
iv.
Minimize soil run-off and sedimentation;
v.
Dispose properly of sewage from human settlements and of manure produced by
intensive livestock breeding;