agenda-21.pdf

e. Other spawning and nursery areas.
(b) Data and information

17.86. States, individually or through bilateral and multilateral cooperation and with the support, as appropriate, of international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, should:
a. Promote enhanced collection and exchange of data necessary for the conservation and sustainable use of the marine living resources under national jurisdiction;
b. Exchange on a regular basis up-to-date data and information necessary for fisheries assessment;
c. Develop and share analytical and predictive tools, such as stock assessment and bioeconomic models;
d. Establish or expand appropriate monitoring and assessment programmes;
e. Complete or update marine biodiversity, marine living resource and critical habitat profiles of exclusive economic zones and other areas under national jurisdiction, taking account of changes in the environment brought about by natural causes and human activities.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

17.87. States, through bilateral and multilateral cooperation, and with the support of relevant United Nations and other international organizations, should cooperate to:
a. Develop financial and technical cooperation to enhance the capacities of developing countries in small-scale and oceanic fisheries, as well as in coastal aquaculture and mariculture;
b. Promote the contribution of marine living resources to eliminate malnutrition and to achieve food self-sufficiency in developing countries, inter alia, by minimizing post- harvest losses and managing stocks for guaranteed sustainable yields;
c. Develop agreed criteria for the use of selective fishing gear and practices to minimize waste in the catch of target species and minimize by-catch of non-target species;
d. Promote seafood quality, including through national quality assurance systems for seafood, in order to promote access to markets, improve consumer confidence and maximize economic returns.
17.88. States should, where and as appropriate, ensure adequate coordination and cooperation in enclosed and semi-enclosed seas and between subregional, regional and global intergovernmental fisheries bodies.

17.89. States recognize:
a. The responsibility of the International Whaling Commission for the conservation and management of whale stocks and the regulation of whaling pursuant to the 1946 International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling;
b. The work of the International Whaling Commission Scientific Committee in carrying out studies of large whales in particular, as well as of other cetaceans;
c. The work of other organizations, such as the Inter-American Tropical Tuna Commission and the Agreement on Small Cetaceans in the Baltic and North Sea under the Bonn Convention, in the conservation, management and study of cetaceans and other marine mammals.

17.90. States should cooperate for the conservation, management and study of cetaceans.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

17.91. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $6 billion, including about $60 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order-of- magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

17.92. States, with the support of relevant intergovernmental organizations, as appropriate, should:
a. Provide for the transfer of environmentally sound technologies to develop fisheries, aquaculture and mariculture, particularly to developing countries;
b. Accord special attention to mechanisms for transferring resource information and improved fishing and aquaculture technologies to fishing communities at the local level;
c. Promote the study, scientific assessment and use of appropriate traditional management systems;
d. Consider observing, as appropriate, the FAO/ICES Code of Practice for Consideration of Transfer and Introduction of Marine and Freshwater Organisms;
e. Promote scientific research on marine areas of particular importance for marine living resources, such as areas of high diversity, endemism and productivity and migratory stopover points.
(c) Human resource development

17.93. States individually, or through bilateral and multilateral cooperation and with the support of relevant international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should encourage and provide support for developing countries, inter alia, to:
a. Expand multidisciplinary education, training and research on marine living resources, particularly in the social and economic sciences;
b. Create training opportunities at national and regional levels to support artisanal (including subsistence) fisheries, to develop small-scale use of marine living resources and to encourage equitable participation of local communities, small-scale fish workers, women and indigenous people;
c. Introduce topics relating to the importance of marine living res ources in educational curricula at all levels.
(d) Capacity-building

17.94. Coastal States, with the support of relevant subregional, regional and global agencies, where appropriate, should:
a. Develop research capacities for assessment of marine living resource populations and monitoring;
b. Provide support to local fishing communities, in particular those that rely on fishing for subsistence, indigenous people and women, including, as appropriate, the technical and

financial assistance to organize, maintain, exch ange and improve traditional knowledge of marine living resources and fishing techniques, and upgrade knowledge on marine ecosystems;
c. Establish sustainable aquaculture development strategies, including environmental management in support of rural fish -farming communities;
d. Develop and strengthen, where the need may arise, institutions capable of implementing the objectives and activities related to the conservation and management of marine living resources.
17.95. Special support, including cooperation among Sta tes, will be needed to enhance the capacities of developing countries in the areas of data and information, scientific and technological means and human resource development in order to enable them to participate effectively in the conservation and sustain able use of marine living resources under national jurisdiction.

E. Addressing critical uncertainties for the management of the marine environment and climate change

Basis for action

17.96. The marine environment is vulnerable and sensitive to climate and at mospheric changes. Rational use and development of coastal areas, all seas and marine resources, as well as conservation of the marine environment, requires the ability to determine the present state of these systems and to predict future conditions. The h igh degree of uncertainty in present information inhibits effective management and limits the ability to make predictions and assess environmental change. Systematic collection of data on marine environmental parameters will be needed to apply integrated management approaches and to predict effects of global climate change and of atmospheric phenomena, such as ozone depletion, on living marine resources and the marine environment. In order to determine the role of the oceans and all seas in driving global s ystems and to predict natural and human-induced changes in marine and coastal environments, the mechanisms to collect, synthesize and disseminate information from research and systematic observation activities need to be restructured and reinforced conside rably.

17.97. There are many uncertainties about climate change and particularly about sealevel rise. Small increases in sealevel have the potential of causing significant damage to small islands and low -lying coasts. Response strategies should be based on soun d data. A long-term cooperative research commitment is needed to provide the data required for global climate models and to reduce uncertainty. Meanwhile, precautionary measures should be undertaken to diminish the risks and effects, particularly on small islands and on low -lying and coastal areas of the world.

17.98. Increased ultraviolet radiation derived from ozone depletion has been reported in some areas of the world. An assessment of its effects in the marine environment is needed to reduce uncertainty an d to provide a basis for action.

Objectives

17.99. States, in accordance with provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on marine scientific research, commit themselves to improve the understanding of the marine environment and its rol e on global processes. To this end, it is necessary to:
a. Promote scientific research on and systematic observation of the marine environment within the limits of national jurisdiction and high seas, including interactions with atmospheric phenomena, such a s ozone depletion;
b. Promote exchange of data and information resulting from scientific research and systematic observation and from traditional ecological knowledge and ensure its availability to policy makers and the public at the national level;
c. Cooperate with a view to the development of standard inter-calibrated procedures, measuring techniques, data storage and management capabilities for scientific research on and systematic observation of the marine environment.
Activities

(a) Management-related activities

17.100. States should consider, inter alia:
a. Coordinating national and regional observation programmes for coastal and near-shore phenomena related to climate change and for research parameters essential for marine and coastal management in all regions;
b. Providing improved forecasts of marine conditions for the safety of inhabitants of coastal areas and for the efficiency of maritime operations;
c. Cooperating with a view to adopting special measures to cope with and adapt to potential climate change and sealevel rise, including the development of globally accepted methodologies for coastal vulnerability assessment, modelling and response strategies particularly for priority areas, such as small islands and low-lying and critical coastal areas;
d. Identifying ongoing and planned programmes of systematic observation of the marine environment, with a view to integrating activities and establishing priorities to address critical uncertainties for oceans and all seas;
e. Initiating a programme of research to determine the marine biological effects of increased levels of ultraviolet rays due to the depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer and to evaluate the possible effects.
17.101. Recognizing the important role that oceans and all seas play in attenuating potential climate change, IOC and other relevant competent United Nations bodies, with the support of countries having the resources and expertise, should carry out analysis, assessments and systematic observation of the role of oceans as a carbon sink.

(b) Data and information

17.102. States should consider, inter alia:
a. Increasing international cooperation particularly with a view to strengthening national scientific and technological capabilities for analysing, assessing and predicting global climate and environmental change;
b. Supporting the role of the IOC in cooperation with WMO, UNEP and other international organizations in the collection, analysis and distribution of data and information from the oceans and all seas, including as appropriate, through the Global Ocean Observing System, giving special attention to the need for IOC to develop fully the strategy for providing training and technical assistance for developing countries through its Training, Education and Mutual Assistance (TEMA) programme;
c. Creating national multisectoral information bases, covering the results of research and systematic observation programmes;

d. Linking these databases to existing data and information services and mechanisms, such as World Weather Watch and Earthwatch;
e. Cooperating with a vi ew to the exchange of data and information and its storage and archiving through the world and regional data centres;
f. Cooperating to ensure full participation of developing countries, in particular, in any international scheme under the organs and organiz ations of the United Nations system for the collection, analysis and use of data and information.
(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

17.103. States should consider bilaterally and multilaterally and in cooperation with international organizations, whether subregional, regional, interregional or global, where appropriate:
a. Providing technical cooperation in developing the capacity of coastal and island States for marine research and systematic observation and for using its results;
b. Strengthening existing national institutions and creating, where necessary, international analysis and prediction mechanisms in order to prepare and exchange regional and global oceanographic analyses and forecasts and to provide facilities for international re search and training at national, subregional and regional levels, where applicable.
17.104. In recognition of the value of Antarctica as an area for the conduct of scientific research, in particular research essential to understanding the global environment, Stat es carrying out such research activities in Antarctica should, as provided for in Article III of the Antarctic Treaty, continue to:
a. Ensure that data and information resulting from such research are freely available to the international community;
b. Enhance access of the international scientific community and specialized agencies of the United Nations to such data and information, including the encouragement of periodic seminars and symposia.
17.105. States should strengthen high -level inter-agency, subregional, re gional and global coordination, as appropriate, and review mechanisms to develop and integrate systematic observation networks. This would include:
a. Review of existing regional and global databases;
b. Mechanisms to develop comparable and compatible techniqu es, validate methodologies and measurements, organize regular scientific reviews, develop options for corrective measures, agree on formats for presentation and storage, and communicate the information gathered to potential users;
c. Systematic observation o f coastal habitats and sealevel changes, inventories of marine pollution sources and reviews of fisheries statistics;
d. Organization of periodic assessments of ocean and all seas and coastal area status and trends.
17.106. International cooperation, through releva nt organizations within the United Nations system, should support countries to develop and integrate regional systematic long -term observation programmes, when applicable, into the Regional Seas Programmes in a coordinated fashion to implement, where appro priate, subregional, regional and global observing systems based on the principle of exchange of data. One aim should be the predicting of the effects of climate -related emergencies on existing coastal physical and socio -economic infrastructure.

17.107. Based on the results of research on the effects of the additional ultraviolet radiation reaching the Earth's surface, in the fields of human health, agriculture and marine environment, States and international organizations should consider taking appropriate remed ial measures.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

17.108. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993 -2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $750 million, including about $48 0 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order -of- magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non -concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

17.109. Developed countries should provide the financing for the further development and implementation of the Global Ocean Observing System.

(b) Scientific and technological means

17.110. To address critical uncertainties through systematic coastal and marine observations and research, coastal States should cooperate in the development of procedures that allow for comparable analysis and soundness of data. T hey should also cooperate on a subregional and regional basis, through existing programmes where applicable, share infrastructure and expensive and sophisticated equipment, develop quality assurance procedures and develop human resources jointly. Special attention should be given to transfer of scientific and technological knowledge and means to support States, particularly developing countries, in the development of endogenous capabilities.

17.111. International organizations should support, when requested, coas tal countries in implementing research projects on the effects of additional ultraviolet radiation.

(c) Human resource development

17.112. States, individually or through bilateral and multilateral cooperation and with the support, as appropriate, of internati onal organizations whether subregional, regional or global, should develop and implement comprehensive programmes, particularly in developing countries, for a broad and coherent approach to meeting their core human resource needs in the marine sciences.

(d) Capacity-building

17.113. States should strengthen or establish as necessary, national scientific and technological oceanographic commissions or equivalent bodies to develop, support and coordinate marine science activities and work closely with internationa l organizations.

17.114. States should use existing subregional and regional mechanisms, where applicable, to develop knowledge of the marine environment, exchange information, organize systematic observations and assessments, and make the most effective use of scientists, facilities and equipment. They should also cooperate in the promotion of endogenous research capabilities in developing countries.

F. Strengthening international, including regional, cooperation and coordination

Basis for action

17.115. It is recognized that the role of international cooperation is to support and supplement national efforts. Implementation of strategies and activities under the programme areas relative to marine and coastal areas and seas requires effective institutional arrangem ents at national, subregional, regional and global levels, as appropriate. There are numerous national and international, including regional, institutions, both within and outside the United Nations system, with competence in marine issues, and there is a need to improve coordination and strengthen links among them. It is also important to ensure that an integrated and multisectoral approach to marine issues is pursued at all levels.

Objectives

17.116. States commit themselves, in accordance with their policies , priorities and resources, to promote institutional arrangements necessary to support the implementation of the programme areas in this chapter. To this end, it is necessary, as appropriate, to:
a. Integrate relevant sectoral activities addressing environme nt and development in marine and coastal areas at national, subregional, regional and global levels, as appropriate;
b. Promote effective information exchange and, where appropriate, institutional linkages between bilateral and multilateral national, regiona l, subregional and interregional institutions dealing with environment and development in marine and coastal areas;
c. Promote within the United Nations system, regular intergovernmental review and consideration of environment and development issues with res pect to marine and coastal areas;
d. Promote the effective operation of coordinating mechanisms for the components of the United Nations system dealing with issues of environment and development in marine and coastal areas, as well as links with relevant int ernational development bodies.
Activities

(a) Management-related activities

Global

17.117. The General Assembly should provide for regular consideration, within the United Nations system, at the intergovernmental level of general marine and coastal issues, including environment and development matters, and should request the Secretary -General and executive heads of United Nations agencies and organizations to:
a. Strengthen coordination and develop improved arrangements among the relevant United Nations organizations with major marine and coastal responsibilities, including their subregional and regional components;
b. Strengthen coordination between those organizations and other United Nations organizations, institutions and specialized agencies dealing with dev elopment, trade and other related economic issues, as appropriate;
c. Improve representation of United Nations agencies dealing with the marine environment in United Nations system -wide coordination efforts;
d. Promote, where necessary, greater collaboration b etween the United Nations agencies and subregional and regional coastal and marine programmes;
e. Develop a centralized system to provide for information on legislation and advice on implementation of legal agreements on marine environmental and development issues.
17.118. States recognize that environmental policies should deal with the root causes of environmental degradation, thus preventing environmental measures from resulting in unnecessary restrictions to trade. Trade policy measures for environmental purpose s should not constitute a means of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination or a disguised restriction on international trade. Unilateral actions to deal with environmental challenges outside the jurisdiction of the importing country should be avoided. Environmental measures addressing international environmental problems should, as far as possible, be based on an international consensus. Domestic measures targeted to achieve certain environmental objectives may need trade measures to render them effective . Should trade policy measures be found necessary for the enforcement of environmental policies, certain principles and rules should apply. These could include, inter alia, the principle of non -discrimination; the principle that the trade measure chosen sh ould be the least trade -restrictive necessary to achieve the objectives; an obligation to ensure transparency in the use of trade measures related to the environment and to provide adequate notification of national regulations; and the need to give conside ration to the special conditions and development requirements of developing countries as they move towards internationally agreed environmental objectives.

Subregional and regional

17.119. States should consider, as appropriate:
a. Strengthening, and extending w here necessary, intergovernmental regional cooperation, the Regional Seas Programmes of UNEP, regional and subregional fisheries organizations and regional commissions;
b. Introduce, where necessary, coordination among relevant United Nations and other multilateral organizations at the subregional and regional levels, including consideration of co-location of their staff;
c. Arrange for periodic intraregional consultations;
d. Facilitate access to and use of expertise and technology through relevant national bodi es to subregional and regional centres and networks, such as the Regional Centres for Marine Technology.
(b) Data and information

17.120. States should, where appropriate:
a. Promote exchange of information on marine and coastal issues;
b. Strengthen the capacity o f international organizations to handle information and support the development of national, subregional and regional data and information systems, where appropriate. This could also include networks linking countries with comparable environmental problems ;
c. Further develop existing international mechanisms such as Earthwatch and GESAMP.
Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

17.121. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993 -2000) of implementing the activi ties of this programme to be about $50 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order -of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, includin g any that are non-concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means, human resource development and capacity -building

17.122. The means of impl ementation outlined in the other programme areas on marine and coastal issues, under the sections on Scientific and technological means, human resource development and capacity - building are entirely relevant for this programme area as well. Additionally, S tates should, through international cooperation, develop a comprehensive programme for meeting the core human resource needs in marine sciences at all levels.

G. Sustainable development of small islands
Basis for action

17.123. Small island developing States, and islands supporting small communities are a special case both for environment and development. They are ecologically fragile and vulnerable. Their small size, limited resources, geographic dispersion and isolation from markets, place them at a disadvan tage economically and prevent economies of scale. For small island developing States the ocean and coastal environment is of strategic importance and constitutes a valuable development resource.

17.124. Their geographic isolation has resulted in their habitation of a comparatively large number of unique species of flora and fauna, giving them a very high share of global biodiversity. They also have rich and diverse cultures with special adaptations to island environments and knowledge of the sound management of i sland resources.

17.125. Small island developing States have all the environmental problems and challenges of the coastal zone concentrated in a limited land area. They are considered extremely vulnerable to global warming and sealevel rise, with certain small low-lying islands facing the increasing threat of the loss of their entire national territories. Most tropical islands are also now experiencing the more immediate impacts of increasing frequency of cyclones, storms and hurricanes associated with climate change. These are causing major set -backs to their socio -economic development.

17.126. Because small island development options are limited, there are special challenges to planning for and implementing sustainable development. Small island developing States will be constrained in meeting these challenges without the cooperation and assistance of the international community.

Objectives

17.127. States commit themselves to addressing the problems of sustainable development of small island developing States. To this end , it is necessary:
a. To adopt and implement plans and programmes to support the sustainable development and utilization of their marine and coastal resources, including meeting essential human needs, maintaining biodiversity and improving the quality of lif e for island people;
b. To adopt measures which will enable small island developing States to cope effectively, creatively and sustainably with environmental change and to mitigate impacts and reduce the threats posed to marine and coastal resources.
Activities

(a) Management-related activities

17.128. Small island developing States, with the assistance as appropriate of the international community and on the basis of existing work of national and international organizations, should:
a. Study the special environme ntal and developmental characteristics of small islands, producing an environmental profile and inventory of their natural resources, critical marine habitats and biodiversity;
b. Develop techniques for determining and monitoring the carrying capacity of sma ll islands under different development assumptions and resource constraints;
c. Prepare medium- and long-term plans for sustainable development that emphasize multiple use of resources, integrate environmental considerations with economic and sectoral planni ng and policies, define measures for maintaining cultural and biological diversity and conserve endangered species and critical marine habitats;
d. Adapt coastal area management techniques, such as planning, siting and environmental impact assessments, using Geographical Information Systems (GIS), suitable to the special characteristics of small islands, taking into account the traditional and cultural values of indigenous people of island countries;
e. Review the existing institutional arrangements and identif y and undertake appropriate institutional reforms essential to the effective implementation of sustainable development plans, including intersectoral coordination and community participation in the planning process;
f. Implement sustainable development plans , including the review and modification of existing unsustainable policies and practices;
g. Based on precautionary and anticipatory approaches, design and implement rational response strategies to address the environmental, social and economic impacts of cl imate change and sealevel rise, and prepare appropriate contingency plans;
h. Promote environmentally sound technology for sustainable development within small island developing States and identify technologies that should be excluded because of their threats to essential island ecosystems.
(b) Data and information

17.129. Additional information on the geographic, environmental, cultural and socio -economic characteristics of islands should be compiled and assessed to assist in the planning process. Existing island databases should be expanded and geographic information systems developed and adapted to suit the special characteristics of islands.

(c) International and regional cooperation and coordination

17.130. Small island developing States, with the support, as appr opriate, of international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, should develop and strengthen inter -island, regional and interregional cooperation and information exchange, including periodic regional and global meetings on sustainable de velopment of small island developing States with the first global conference on the sustainable development of small island developing States, to be held in 1993.

17.131. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, must recognize the sp ecial development requirements of small island developing States and give adequate priority in the provision of assistance, particularly with respect to the development and implementation of sustainable development plans.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

17.132. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993 -2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $130 million, including about $50 million from the international community on gra nt or concessional terms. These are indicative and order -of- magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non -concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies
and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technical means

17.133. Centres for the development and diffusion of scientific information and advice on technical means and technologies appropriate to small island developing Sta tes, especially with reference to the management of the coastal zone, the exclusive economic zone and marine resources, should be established or strengthened, as appropriate, on a regional basis.

(c) Human resource development

17.134. Since populations of smal l island developing States cannot maintain all necessary specializations, training for integrated coastal management and development should aim to produce cadres of managers or scientists, engineers and coastal planners able to integrate the many factors t hat need to be considered in integrated coastal management. Resource users should be prepared to execute both management and protection functions and to apply the polluter pays principle and support the training of their personnel. Educational systems shou ld be modified to meet these needs and special training programmes developed in integrated island management and development. Local planning should be integrated in educational curricula of all levels and public awareness campaigns developed with the assistance of non -governmental organizations and indigenous coastal populations.

(d) Capacity-building
17.135. The total capacity of small island developing States will always be limited. Existing capacity must therefore be restructured to meet efficiently the immed iate needs for sustainable development and integrated management. At the same time, adequate and appropriate assistance from the international community must be directed at strengthening the full range of human resources needed on a continuous basis to imp lement sustainable development plans.

17.136. New technologies that can increase the output and range of capability of the limited human resources should be employed to increase the capacity of very small populations to meet their needs. The development and appl ication of traditional knowledge to improve the capacity of countries to implement sustainable development should be fostered.

Notes
1/ References to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in this chapter of Agenda 21 do not prejudice the position of any State with respect to signature, ratification of or accession to the Convention.

2/ References to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea in this chapter of Agenda 21 do not prejudice the position of States which view the Conv ention as having a unified character.

3/ Nothing in the programme areas of this chapter should be interpreted as prejudicing the rights of the States involved in a dispute of sovereignty or in the delimitation of the maritime areas concerned.

Agenda 21 – Chapter 18 PROTECTION OF THE QUALITY AND SUPPLY OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES: APPLICATION OF INTEGRATED APPROACHES TO THE DEVELOPMENT, MANAGEMENT AND USE OF WATER RESOURCES 18.1. Freshwater resources are an essential component of the Earth's hydrosphere and a n indispensable part of all terrestrial ecosystems. The freshwater environment is characterized by the hydrological cycle, including floods and droughts, which in some regions have become more extreme and dramatic in their consequences. Global climate chan ge and atmospheric pollution could also have an impact on freshwater resources and their availability and, through sea -level rise, threaten low -lying coastal areas and small island ecosystems.

18.2. Water is needed in all aspects of life. The general objective is to make certain that adequate supplies of water of good quality are maintained for the entire population of this planet, while preserving the hydrological, biological and chemical functions of ecosystems, adapting human activities within the capacity limits of nature and combating vectors of water -related diseases. Innovative technologies, including the improvement of indigenous technologies, are needed to fully utilize limited water resources and to safeguard those resources against pollution.

18.3. The widespread scarcity, gradual destruction and aggravated pollution of freshwater resources in many world regions, along with the progressive encroachment of incompatible activities, demand integrated water resources planning and management. Such integration m ust cover all types of interrelated freshwater bodies, including both surface water and groundwater, and duly consider water quantity and quality aspects. The multisectoral nature of water resources development in the context of socio -economic development must be recognized, as well as the multi -interest utilization of water resources for water supply and sanitation, agriculture, industry, urban development, hydropower generation, inland fisheries, transportation, recreation, low and flat lands management and other activities. Rational water utilization schemes for the development of surface and underground water -supply sources and other potential sources have to be supported by concurrent water conservation and wastage minimization measures. Priority, howev er, must be accorded to flood prevention and control measures, as well as sedimentation control, where required.

18.4. Transboundary water resources and their use are of great importance to riparian States. In this connection, cooperation among those States ma y be desirable in conformity with existing agreements and/or other relevant arrangements, taking into account the interests of all riparian States concerned.

18.5. The following programme areas are proposed for the freshwater sector:
a. Integrated water resource s development and management;
b. Water resources assessment;
c. Protection of water resources, water quality and aquatic ecosystems;
d. Drinking-water supply and sanitation;
e. Water and sustainable urban development;
f. Water for sustainable food production and rur al development;
g. Impacts of climate change on water resources.
PROGRAMME AREAS
A. Integrated water resources development and management

Basis for action
18.6. The extent to which water resources development contributes to economic productivity and social well-being is not usually appreciated, although all social and economic activities rely heavily on the supply and quality of freshwater. As populations and economic activities grow, many countries are rapidly reaching conditions of water scarcity or facing l imits to economic development. Water demands are increasing rapidly, with 70 -80 per cent required for irrigation, less than 20 per cent for industry and a mere 6 per cent for domestic consumption. The holistic management of freshwater as a finite and vulnerable resource, and the integration of sectoral water plans and programmes within the framework of national economic and social policy, are of paramount importance for action in the 1990s and beyond. The fragmentation of responsibilities for water resource s development among sectoral agencies is proving, however, to be an even greater impediment to promoting integrated water management than had been anticipated. Effective implementation and coordination mechanisms are required.

Objectives

18.7. The overall ob jective is to satisfy the freshwater needs of all countries for their sustainable development.

18.8. Integrated water resources management is based on the perception of water as an integral part of the ecosystem, a natural resource and a social and economic go od, whose quantity and quality determine the nature of its utilization. To this end, water resources have to be protected, taking into account the functioning of aquatic ecosystems and the perenniality of the resource, in order to satisfy and reconcile needs for water in human activities. In developing and using water resources, priority has to be given to the satisfaction of basic needs and the safeguarding of ecosystems. Beyond these requirements, however, water users should be charged appropriately.

18.9. Integrated water resources management, including the integration of land - and water-related aspects, should be carried out at the level of the catchment basin or sub -basin. Four principal objectives should be pursued, as follows:
a. To promote a dynamic, inter active, iterative and multisectoral approach to water resources management, including the identification and protection of potential sources of freshwater supply, that integrates technological, socio -economic, environmental and human health considerations;
b. To plan for the sustainable and rational utilization, protection, conservation and management of water resources based on community needs and priorities within the framework of national economic development policy;
c. To design, implement and evaluate proj ects and programmes that are both economically efficient and socially appropriate within clearly defined strategies, based on an approach of full public participation, including that of women, youth, indigenous people and local communities in water managem ent policy-making and decision -making;
d. To identify and strengthen or develop, as required, in particular in developing countries, the appropriate institutional, legal and financial mechanisms to ensure that water policy and its implementation are a cataly st for sustainable social progress and economic growth.
18.10. In the case of transboundary water resources, there is a need for riparian States to formulate water resources strategies, prepare water resources action programmes and consider, where appropriate, t he harmonization of those strategies and action programmes.

18.11. All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could set the following targets:
a. By the year 2000:
i. To have designed and initiated costed and targeted national action programmes, and to have put in place appropriate institutional structures and legal instruments;
ii. To have established efficient water-use programmes to attain sustainable resource utilization patterns;
b. By the year 2025:
i. To have achieved subsectoral targets of all freshwater programme areas.
It is understood that the fulfilment of the targets quantified in (i) and (ii) above will depend upon new and additional financial resources that will be made available to developing countries in accordance with the relevant provisions of General Assembly resolution 44/228.
Activities

18.12. All States, according to their capacity and available resources, and through bilateral or multilateral cooperation, including the United Nations and other relevant organizations as appropriate, could implement the following activities to improve integrated water resources management:
a. Formulation of costed and targeted national action plans and investment programmes;
b. Integration of measures for the protection and conservation of potential sources of freshwater supply, including the inventorying of water resources, with land-use planning, forest resource utilization, protection of mountain slopes and riverbanks and other relevant development and conservation activities;
c. Development of interactive databases, forecasting models, economic planning models and methods for water management and planning, including environmental impact assessment methods;
d. Optimization of water resources allocation under physical and socio-economic constraints;
e. Implementation of allocation decisions through demand management, pricing mechanisms and regulatory measures;
f. Flood and drought management, including risk analysis and environmental and social impact assessment;
g. Promotion of schemes for rational water use through public awareness-raising, educational programmes and levying of water tariffs and other economic instruments;
h. Mobilization of water resources, particularly in arid and semi-arid areas;
i. Promotion of international scientific research cooperation on freshwater resources;
j. Development of new and alternative sources of water-supply such as sea-water desalination, artificial groundwater recharge, use of marginal-quality water, waste-water reuse and water recycling;
k. Integration of water (including surface and underground water resources) quantity and quality management;
l. Promotion of water conservation through improved water-use efficiency and wastage minimization schemes for all users, including the development of water-saving devices;
m. Support to water-users groups to optimize local water resources management;