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(a) Management-related activities
16.40. Governments at the appropriate level, with the support of international and regional organizations, the private sector, non -governmental organizations and academic and scientific institutions, should:
a. Develop policies and mob ilize additional resources to facilitate greater access to the new biotechnologies, particularly by and among developing countries;
b. Implement programmes to create greater awareness of the potential and relative benefits and risks of the environmentally so und application of biotechnology among the public and key decision makers;
c. Undertake an urgent review of existing enabling mechanisms, programmes and activities at the national, regional and global levels to identify strengths, weaknesses and gaps, and to assess the priority needs of developing countries;
d. Undertake an urgent follow -up and critical review to identify ways and means of strengthening endogenous capacities within and among developing countries for the environmentally sound application of biot echnology, including, as a first step, ways to improve existing mechanisms, particularly at the regional level, and, as a subsequent step, the consideration of possible new international mechanisms, such as regional biotechnology centres;
e. Develop strategic plans for overcoming targeted constraints by means of appropriate research, product development and marketing;
f. Establish additional quality -assurance standards for biotechnology applications and products, where necessary.
(b) Data and information

16.40. The following activities should be undertaken: facilitation of access to existing information dissemination systems, especially among developing countries; improvement of such access where appropriate; and consideration of the development of a directory of in formation.

16.41. Governments at the appropriate level, with the assistance of international and regional organizations, should develop appropriate new initiatives to identify priority areas for rese arch based on specific problems and facilitate access to new biotechnologies, particularly by and among developing countries, among relevant undertakings within those countries, in order to strengthen endogenous capacities and to support the building of re search and institutional capacity in those countries.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

16.42. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993 -2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $5 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order -of-magnitude estimates only and have not been reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non - concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological means

16.43. Workshops, symposia, seminars and other exchanges among the scientific community at the regional and global levels, on specific priority themes, will need to be organized, making full use of the existing scientific and technological manpower in each country for bringing about such exchanges.

16.44. Personnel development nee ds will need to be identified and additional training programmes developed at the national, regional and global levels, especially in developing countries. These should be supported by increased training at all levels, graduate, postgraduate and post -doctoral, as well as by the training of technicians and support staff, with particular reference to the generation of trained manpower in consultant services, design, engineering and marketing research. Training programmes for lecturers training scientists and technologists in advanced research institutions in different countries throughout the world will also need to be developed, and systems giving appropriate rewards, incentives and recognition to scientists and technologists will need to be instituted (see p ara. 16.44). Conditions of service will also need to be improved at the national level in developing countries to encourage and nurture trained manpower with a view to retaining that manpower locally. Society should be informed of the social and cultural i mpact of the development and application of biotechnology.

(d) Capacity-building

16.45. Biotechnology research and development is undertaken both under highly sophisticated conditions and at the practical level in many countries. Efforts will be needed to ens ure that the necessary infrastructure facilities for research, extension and technology activities are available on a decentralized basis. Global and regional collaboration for basic and applied research and development will also need to be further enhance d and every effort should be made to ensure that existing national and regional facilities are fully utilized. Such institutions already exist in some countries and it should be possible to make use of them for training purposes and joint research projects. Strengthening of universities, technical schools and local research institutions for the development of biotechnologies and extension services for their application will need to be developed, especially in developing countries.

Agenda 21 – Chapter 17 PROTECTION OF THE OCEANS, ALL KINDS OF SEAS, INCLUDING ENCLOSED AND SEMI-ENCLOSED SEAS, AND COASTAL AREAS AND THE PROTECTION, RATIONAL USE AND DEVELOPMENT OF THEIR LIVING RESOURCES 17.1. The marine environment - including the oceans and all se as and adjacent coastal areas - forms an integrated whole that is an essential component of the global life -support system and a positive asset that presents opportunities for sustainable development. International law, as reflected in the provisions of th e United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1/, 2/ referred to in this chapter of Agenda 21, sets forth rights and obligations of States and provides the international basis upon which to pursue the protection and sustainable development of the marin e and coastal environment and its resources. This requires new approaches to marine and coastal area management and development, at the national, subregional, regional and global levels, approaches that are integrated in content and are precautionary and a nticipatory in ambit, as reflected in the following programme areas: 3/
a. Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areas, including exclusive economic zones;
b. Marine environmental protection;
c. Sustainable use and conservation of marine l iving resources of the high seas;
d. Sustainable use and conservation of marine living resources under national jurisdiction;
e. Addressing critical uncertainties for the management of the marine environment and climate change;
f. Strengthening international, in cluding regional, cooperation and coordination;
g. Sustainable development of small islands.
17.2. The implementation by developing countries of the activities set forth below shall be commensurate with their individual technological and financial capacities and priorities in allocating resources for development needs and ultimately depends on the technology transfer and financial resources required and made available to them.

PROGRAMME AREAS

A. Integrated management and sustainable development of coastal and marine areas, including exclusive economic zones

Basis for action
17.3. The coastal area contains diverse and productive habitats important for human settlements, development and local subsistence. More than half the world's population lives within 60 km of t he shoreline, and this could rise to three quarters by the year 2020. Many of the world's poor are crowded in coastal areas. Coastal resources are vital for many local communities and indigenous people. The exclusive economic zone (EEZ) is also an importan t marine area where the States manage the development and conservation of natural resources for the benefit of their people. For small island States or countries, these are the areas most available for development activities.

17.4. Despite national, subregiona l, regional and global efforts, current approaches to the management of marine and coastal resources have not always proved capable of achieving sustainable development, and coastal resources and the coastal environment are being rapidly degraded and erode d in many parts of the world.

Objectives

17.5. Coastal States commit themselves to integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areas and the marine environment under their national jurisdiction. To this end, it is necessary to, inter alia:
a. Provide for an integrated policy and decision -making process, including all involved sectors, to promote compatibility and a balance of uses;
b. Identify existing and projected uses of coastal areas and their interactions;
c. Concentrate on well-defined issues concerning coastal management;
d. Apply preventive and precautionary approaches in project planning and implementation, including prior assessment and systematic observation of the impacts of major projects;
e. Promote the development and application of methods, such as national resource and environmental accounting, that reflect changes in value resulting from uses of coastal and marine areas, including pollution, marine erosion, loss of resources and habitat destruction;
f. Provide access, as far as possible, for concerned individuals, groups and organizations to relevant information and opportunities for consultation and participation in planning and decision-making at appropriate levels.
Activities

(a) Management-related activities

17.6. Each coastal State should consider establishing, or where necessary strengthening, appropriate coordinating mechanisms (such as a high-level policy planning body) for integrated management and sustainable development of coastal and marine areas and their resources, at both the local and national levels. Such mechanisms should include consultation, as appropriate, with the academic and private sectors, non-governmental organizations, local communities, resource user groups, and indigenous people. Such national coordinating mechanisms could provide, inter alia, for:
a. Preparation and implementation of land and water use and siting policies;
b. Implementation of integrated coastal and marine management and sustainable development plans and programmes at appropriate levels;
c. Preparation of coastal profiles identifying critical areas, including eroded zones, physical processes, development patterns, user conflicts and specific priorities for management;
d. Prior environmental impact assessment, systematic observation and follow-up of major projects, including the systematic incorporation of results in decision-making;
e. Contingency plans for human induced and natural disasters, including likely effects of potential climate change and sealevel rise, as well as contingency plans for degradation and pollution of anthropogenic origin, including spills of oil and other materials;
f. Improvement of coastal human settlements, especially in housing, drinking water and treatment and disposal of sewage, solid wastes and industrial effluents;
g. Periodic assessment of the impacts of external factors and phenomena to ensure that the objectives of integrated management and sustainable development of coastal areas and the marine environment are met;
h. Conservation and restoration of altered critical habitats;
i. Integration of sectoral programmes on sustainable development for settlements, agriculture, tourism, fishing, ports and industries affecting the coastal area;
j. Infrastructure adaptation and alternative employment;
k. Human resource development and training;
l. Public education, awareness and information programmes;

m. Promoting environmentally sound technology and sustainable practices;
n. Development and simultaneous implementation of environmental quality criteria.
17.7. Coastal States, with the support of international organizations, upon request, should undertake measures to maintain biological diversity and productivity of marine species and habitats under national jurisdiction. Inter alia, these measures might include: surveys of marine biodiversity, inventories of e ndangered species and critical coastal and marine habitats; establishment and management of protected areas; and support of scientific research and dissemination of its results.

(b) Data and information

17.8. Coastal States, where necessary, should improve t heir capacity to collect, analyse, assess and use information for sustainable use of resources, including environmental impacts of activities affecting the coastal and marine areas. Information for management purposes should receive priority support in view of the intensity and magnitude of the changes occurring in the coastal and marine areas. To this end, it is necessary to, inter alia:
a. Develop and maintain databases for assessment and management of coastal areas and all seas and their resources;
b. Develop socio-economic and environmental indicators;
c. Conduct regular environmental assessment of the state of the environment of coastal and marine areas;
d. Prepare and maintain profiles of coastal area resources, activities, uses, habitats and protected areas b ased on the criteria of sustainable development;
e. Exchange information and data.
17.9. Cooperation with developing countries, and, where applicable, subregional and regional mechanisms, should be strengthened to improve their capacities to achieve the above.

17.10. The role of international cooperation and coordination on a bilateral basis and, where applicable, within a subregional, interregional, regional or global framework, is to support and supplement
national efforts of coastal States to promote integrated management and sustainable development of coastal and marine areas.

17.11. States should cooperate, as appropriate, in the preparation of national guidelines for integrated coastal zone management and de velopment, drawing on existing experience. A global conference to exchange experience in the field could be held before 1994.

Means of implementation

(a) Financing and cost evaluation

17.12. The Conference secretariat has estimated the average total annual cost (1993-2000) of implementing the activities of this programme to be about $6 billion including about $50 million from the international community on grant or concessional terms. These are indicative and order -of- magnitude estimates only and have not b een reviewed by Governments. Actual costs and financial terms, including any that are non -concessional, will depend upon, inter alia, the specific strategies and programmes Governments decide upon for implementation.

(b) Scientific and technological mean s

17.13. States should cooperate in the development of necessary coastal systematic observation, research and information management systems. They should provide access to and transfer environmentally safe technologies and methodologies for sustainable developm ent of coastal and marine areas to developing countries. They should also develop technologies and endogenous scientific and technological capacities.

17.14. International organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should support coastal States, upon request, in these efforts, as indicated above, devoting special attention to developing countries.

17.15. Coastal States should promote and facilitate the organization of education and training in integrated coastal and marine management and sustainable development for scientists, technologists, managers (including community -based managers) and users, leaders, indigenous peoples, fisherfolk, women and youth, among others. Management and development, as well as environmental protection concerns and local planning issues, should be incorporated in educational curricula and public awareness campaigns, with due regard to traditional ecological knowledge and socio -cultural values.

17.16. International organizations, whet her subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should support coastal States, upon request, in the areas indicated above, devoting special attention to developing countries.

(d) Capacity-building

17.17. Full cooperation should be extended, upon request , to coastal States in their capacity -building efforts and, where appropriate, capacity -building should be included in bilateral and multilateral development cooperation. Coastal States may consider, inter alia:
a. Ensuring capacity -building at the local lev el;
b. Consulting on coastal and marine issues with local administrations, the business community, the academic sector, resource user groups and the general public;
c. Coordinating sectoral programmes while building capacity;
d. Identifying existing and potentia l capabilities, facilities and needs for human resources development and scientific and technological infrastructure;
e. Developing scientific and technological means and research;
f. Promoting and facilitating human resource development and education;
g. Supporting "centres of excellence" in integrated coastal and marine resource management;
h. Supporting pilot demonstration programmes and projects in integrated coastal and marine management.
B. Marine environmental protection
Basis for action

17.18. Degradation of t he marine environment can result from a wide range of sources. Land -based sources contribute 70 per cent of marine pollution, while maritime transport and dumping -at-sea activities contribute 10 per cent each. The contaminants that pose the greatest threat to the marine environment are, in variable order of importance and depending on differing national or regional situations, sewage, nutrients, synthetic organic compounds, sediments, litter and plastics, metals, radionuclides, oil/hydrocarbons and polycycl ic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). Many of the polluting substances originating from land -based sources are of particular concern to the marine environment since they exhibit at the same time toxicity, persistence and bioaccumulation in the food chain. There
is currently no global scheme to address marine pollution from land -based sources.

17.19. Degradation of the marine environment can also result from a wide range of activities on land. Human settlements, land use, construction of coastal infrastructure, agricu lture, forestry, urban development, tourism and industry can affect the marine environment. Coastal erosion and siltation are of particular concern.
17.20. Marine pollution is also caused by shipping and sea -based activities. Approximately 600,000 tons of oil enter the oceans each year as a result of normal shipping operations, accidents and illegal discharges. With respect to offshore oil and gas activities, currently machinery space discharges are regulated internationally and six regional conventions to contro l platform discharges have been under consideration. The nature and extent of environmental impacts from offshore oil exploration and production activities generally account for a very small proportion of marine pollution.

17.21. A precautionary and anticipator y rather than a reactive approach is necessary to prevent the degradation of the marine environment. This requires, inter alia, the adoption of precautionary measures, environmental impact assessments, clean production techniques, recycling, waste audits and minimization, construction and/or improvement of sewage treatment facilities, quality management criteria for the proper handling of hazardous substances, and a comprehensive approach to damaging impacts from air, land and water. Any management framewor k must include the improvement of coastal human settlements and the integrated management and development of coastal areas.

Objectives

17.22. States, in accordance with the provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea on protection and p reservation of the marine environment, commit themselves, in accordance with their policies, priorities and resources, to prevent, reduce and control degradation of the marine environment so as to maintain and improve its life -support and productive capaci ties. To this end, it is necessary to:
a. Apply preventive, precautionary and anticipatory approaches so as to avoid degradation of the marine environment, as well as to reduce the risk of long -term or irreversible adverse effects upon it;
b. Ensure prior assessment of activities that may have significant adverse impacts upon the marine environment;
c. Integrate protection of the marine environment into relevant general environmental, social and economic development policies;
d. Develop economic incentives, where a ppropriate, to apply clean technologies and other means consistent with the internalization of environmental costs, such as the polluter pays principle, so as to avoid degradation of the marine environment;
e. Improve the living standards of coastal populati ons, particularly in developing countries, so as to contribute to reducing the degradation of the coastal and marine environment.
17.23. States agree that provision of additional financial resources, through appropriate international mechanisms, as well as acces s to cleaner technologies and relevant research, would be necessary to support action by developing countries to implement this commitment.

Activities

(a) Management-related activities

Prevention, reduction and control of degradation of the marine en vironment from land -based activities

17.24. In carrying out their commitment to deal with degradation of the marine environment from land - based activities, States should take action at the national level and, where appropriate, at the regional and subregional l evels, in concert with action to implement programme area A, and should take account of the Montreal Guidelines for the Protection of the Marine Environment from Land -Based Sources.

17.25. To this end, States, with the support of the relevant international envi ronmental, scientific, technical and financial organizations, should cooperate, inter alia, to:

a. Consider updating, strengthening and extending the Montreal Guidelines, as appropriate;
b. Assess the effectiveness of existing regional agreements and action p lans, where appropriate, with a view to identifying means of strengthening action, where necessary, to prevent, reduce and control marine degradation caused by land -based activities;
c. Initiate and promote the development of new regional agreements, where a ppropriate;
d. Develop means of providing guidance on technologies to deal with the major types of pollution of the marine environment from land -based sources, according to the best scientific evidence;
e. Develop policy guidance for relevant global funding me chanisms;
f. Identify additional steps requiring international cooperation.
17.26. The UNEP Governing Council is invited to convene, as soon as practicable, an intergovernmental meeting on protection of the marine environment from land -based activities.

17.27. As concerns sewage, priority actions to be considered by States may include:

a. Incorporating sewage concerns when formulating or reviewing coastal development plans, including human settlement plans;
b. Building and maintaining sewage treatment facilities in accorda nce with national policies and capacities and international cooperation available;
c. Locating coastal outfalls so as to maintain an acceptable level of environmental quality and to avoid exposing shell fisheries, water intakes and bathing areas to pathogens ;
d. Promoting environmentally sound co -treatments of domestic and compatible industrial effluents, with the introduction, where practicable, of controls on the entry of effluents that are not compatible with the system;
e. Promoting primary treatment of munic ipal sewage discharged to rivers, estuaries and the sea, or other solutions appropriate to specific sites;
f. Establishing and improving local, national, subregional and regional, as necessary, regulatory and monitoring programmes to control effluent dischar ge, using minimum sewage effluent guidelines and water quality criteria and giving due consideration to the characteristics of receiving bodies and the volume and type of pollutants.
17.28. As concerns other sources of pollution, priority actions to be considered by States may include:
a. Establishing or improving, as necessary, regulatory and monitoring programmes to control effluent discharges and emissions, including the development and application of control and recycling technologies;
b. Promoting risk and environmental impact assessments to help ensure an acceptable level of environmental quality;
c. Promoting assessment and cooperation at the regional level, where appropriate, with respect to the input of point source pollutants from new installations;
d. Eliminating the emission or discharge of organohalogen compounds that threaten to accumulate to dangerous levels in the marine environment;
e. Reducing the emission or discharge of other synthetic organic compounds that threaten to accumulate to dangerous levels in the marine environment;
f. Promoting controls over anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen and phosphorus that enter coastal waters where such problems as eutrophication threaten the marine environment or its resources;
g. Cooperating with developing countries, through financial and technological support, to maximize the best practicable control and reduction of substances and wastes that are toxic, persistent or liable to bio-accumulate and to establish environmentally sound land- based waste disposal alternatives to sea dumping;
h. Cooperating in the development and implementation of environmentally sound land-use techniques and practices to reduce run-off to water-courses and estuaries which would cause pollution or degradation of the marine environment;
i. Promoting the use of environmentally less harmful pesticides and fertilizers and alternative methods for pest control, and considering the prohibition of those found to be environmentally unsound;
j. Adopting new initiatives at national, subregional and regional levels for controlling the input of non-point source pollutants, which require broad changes in sewage and waste management, agricultural practices, mining, construction and transportation.
17.29. As concerns physical destruction of coastal and marine areas causing degradation of the marine environment, priority actions should include control and prevention of coastal erosion and siltation due to anthropogenic factors related to, inter alia, land-use and construction techniques and practices. Watershed management practices should be promoted so as to prevent, control and reduce degradation of the marine environment.

Prevention, reduction and control of degradation of the marine environment from sea-based activities

17.30. States, acting individually, bilaterally, regionally or multilaterally and within the framework of IMO and other relevant international organizations, whether subregional, regional or global, as appropriate, should assess the need for additional measures to address degradation of the marine environment:
a. From shipping, by:
i. Supporting wider ratification and implementation of relevant shipping conventions and protocols;
ii. Facilitating the processes in (i), providing support to individual States upon request to help them overcome the obstacles identified by them;

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